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THE    REPRODUCTION 


OF 


Geographical   Forms 


I.   SAND-  AND    CLAY-MODELLING    WITH 

RESPECT  TO   GEOGRAPHICAL 

FORMS 

II.   MAP-DRAWING  AND  MAP-PROJECTION 


BY 


JACQUES  W.   REDWAY 


»©;c 


■ 

BOSTON 

PUBLISHED   BY   D.   C.   HEATH  &  CO. 

1897 


OTHER  WORKS  BY  THE  SAME  AUTHOR. 


A   SERIES   OF   GEOGRAPHIES,    DESCRIPTIVE   AND    PHYSICAL. 

A    GEOGRAPHY   OF   PENNSYLVANIA. 

A   GEOGRAPHY   OF   MASSACHUSETTS,    CONNECTICUT,    AND    RHODE 

ISLAND. 
STUDIES    IN    PHYSIOGRAPHY  (in  Press). 
A   TEACHER'S    MANUAL   OF   GEOGRAPHY. 


Copyright,  1890, 
By  JACQUES  W.   REDWAY. 


jCff     G^^Sl.   &   ^^ 


Typography  by  J.  S.  Cushing  &  Co.,  Boston,  U.S.A. 


#4 


FOREWORDS. 


Sand-  and  clay-modelling  with  respect  to  topographical  forms 
has  become  a  legitimate  and  essential  part  of  the  course  of  instruc- 
tion in  the  study  of  geography.  But  while  much  emphasis  has 
been  placed  on  the  arbitrary  order  to  do,  little  has  been  said 
on  the  subject  of  how  and  what  to  model,  or  how  to  interpret 
the  forms  when  made.  The  moulding-board  is  intended  not  for 
the  creation  of  forms,  but  for  the  reproduction  of  those  already 
found  in  nature.  A  working  plan  whereby  the  more  common 
types  of  geographical  forms  may  be  studied  in  the  school-room, 
is  therefore  presented. 

I  have  also  added  a  few  pages  on  the  practical  construction  of 
maps  and  map-projections.  To  project  and  draw  a  '  scientific ' 
map  is  often  considered  an  unpardonable  educational  heresy.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the  '  scientific  '  projection  is  vastly  easier, 
and  requires  less  time  than  the  bungling,  meaningless  diagram 
which  commonly  poses  under  the  name  of  an  '  aid '  to  map- 
drawing.  I  have  therefore  taken  the  liberty  to  present  a  few  prac- 
tical projections  which  are  not  beyond  the  comprehension  of 
pupils  in  intermediate  grades.  There  is  also  presented  a  solu- 
tion of  several  of  the  more  difficult  projections  which  appear  in 

school  atlases. 

J.  W.  R. 


M&22503 


PART    I. 

HINTS   TO    TEACHERS. 

I. 

PRELIMINARY   ORAL  WORK. 

It  is  hardly  an  exaggeration  to  say  that  the  average  child  learns 
more  of  the  science  of  geography  in  his  rambles  out  of  doors, 
before  beginning  the  study  in  his  school  course,  than  he  learns 
from  the  text-book  after  his  school  work  in  that  study  begins. 
The  reason  is  that,  in  the  one  case  he  reads  geography  in  nature, 
in  the  other  from  the  printed  page.  No  matter  how  well  and  how 
faithfully  the  teaching  may  be  done,  the  disadvantages  arising  from 
the  use  of  words  and  sentences  instead  of  things  in  nature,  are  too 
great  to  be  easily  swept  away.  Within  a  few  years  the  importance 
of  this  fact  has  been  so  widely  recognized  by  primary  teachers 
that,  in  a  majority  of  schools,  text- book  work  has  been  largely 
abandoned  in  primary  grades,  and  oral  lessons,  aided  by  the 
moulding-board  and  the  study  of  natural  forms,  have  very 
properly  taken  its  place. 

The  outline  of  the  following  course  in  oral  primary  geography 
was  furnished  at  the  author's  request  by  Miss  Mathilde  E.  Coffin, 
of  the  Millersville,  Pa.,  State  Normal  School,  as  a  basis  for  the 
preparation  of  this  and  the  following  chapter.  It  is  intended  as  a 
list  of  topics  for  oral  work  rather  than  a  systematic  course  of  study. 
Much  of  the  work  discussed  must  necessarily  be  done  out  of  doors. 
Children  who  like  to  make  '  mud  pies  '  will  take  equal  delight  in 
modelling  natural  forms  in  sand  or  in  clay.  Time  ordinarily  spent 
in  aimless  rambling  will  be  gladly  devoted  to  the  collection  and 
study  of  natural  objects  when  once  there  is  an  incentive  for  it.  In 
ungraded  country  schools  the  wise  plan  of  keeping  primary  pupils 
out  of  doors  at  all  times  when  they  are  not  engaged  in  recitation 


6  HINTS    TO    TEACHERS 

is  an  excellent  one,  and  these  are  the  golden  hours  which  the  child 
may  devote  to  the  study  of  nature.  The  out-of-door  work  should 
of  course  be  supplemented  by  the  necessary  developmental  exer- 
cises, and  lessons  in  oral  expression  in  the  school-room.  Bear  in 
mind,  also,  that  while  recitation-hearing  is  an  easy  matter,  teaching 
children  how  to  study  and  how  to  observe  is  a  qualification  de- 
manding the  highest  capabilities  of  the  teacher. 

Form.  —  It  is  well,  so  far  as  possible,  to  acquire  a  knowledge 
of  form  from  natural  objects.  Fruit,  crystals,  forms  of  leaves, 
shells,  animals,  and  geometric  forms  will  all  furnish  instructive 
lessons.  At  first  the  work  must  be  wholly  imitative,  but,  as  skill  is 
acquired,  objects  may  be  modelled  from  memory.  With  the 
modelling  of  geometric  forms  comes  the  necessary  instruction  in 
the  use  of  descriptive  terms,  such  as  plane,  curved,  level,  cubic, 
spherical,  square,  circular,  slanting,  vertical,  angle  or  corner,  solid, 
horizontal,  etc.  Inculcate  with  every  step  ideas  of  neatness  in 
work  and  faithfulness  to  the  copy. 

Size. — Teach  by  actual  measurement  all  the  units  of  linear 
measure  within  the  comprehension  of  the  pupil.  The  latter  should 
be  taught  to  estimate  the  inch,  foot,  and  yard  with  the  eye.  It 
will  be  found  rather  more  difficult  to  estimate  vertical  than  hori- 
zontal distances,  especially  if  the  eyesight  be  at  all  astigmatic.  It 
is  well  to  have  a  pupil  learn  the  length  of  his  ordinary  step,  so 
that  he  can  pace  either  a  rod  or  one  hundred  feet  with  reasonable 
accuracy.  It  is  not  a  difficult  matter  to  estimate  a  distance  of  one 
mile,  but  the  estimate  would  better  be  made  by  reckoning  the 
time  required  to  walk  it,  rather  than  by  the  number  of  steps.  The 
average  adult  takes  about  two  thousand  steps  to  the  mile.  Three 
and  one  half  miles  per  hour  is  a  fair,  four  miles  a  brisk,  and  five 
miles  per  hour  a  very  rapid  gait.  Time  that  is  spent  in  estimating 
and  measuring  the  dimensions  of  objects  is  by  no  means  wasted. 
The  ability  to  estimate  measurements  accurately  has  a  practical 
value  to  which  every  person  in  active  business  life  will  testify. 
The  estimation  of  angular  distance  is  also  an  excellent  drill.  By 
subdividing  an  arc  which  measures  a  right  angle,  into  halves  and 


PRELIMINARY  ORAL    WORK  7 

thirds,  almost  any  angle  can  be  estimated  to  within  two  or  three 
degrees. 

Color.  —  The  proper  development  of  the  color-sense  is  of  no 
little  importance  to  the  student  of  nature.  It  is  well,  for  many 
reasons,  to  make  a  special  test  of  the  color-sense  of  each  pupil. 
About  ten  per  cent  of  young  children  are  deficient  in  color- vision. 
Of  this  proportion,  some  are  deficient  through  physiological  causes, 
others  from  a  lack  of  development  of  the  color-sense,  and  still 
others  from  ignorance  of  the  names  of  colors.  The  two  latter 
causes  are  remediable,  and  can  be  easily  removed  if  the  teacher 
will  take  a  little  extra  pains  with  each  individual  pupil.  Select 
at  first,  only  bright,  pronounced  colors,  and  teach  their  names. 
Afterwards  exercise  every  pupil  in  selecting  graduated  shades  of 
each  color.  A  pupil  who  is  physiologically  deficient  in  the  color- 
sense  will  most  likely  fail  in  distinguishing  the  reds  and  greens. 
Use  only  well-known  and  standard  names  for  the  various  shades 
and  mixtures.  Such  names  as  'ecru,'  ' faded  rose,'  ' crushed 
strawberry,'  etc.,  are  whims  of  fancy  only,  and  change  with  the 
fashions. 

In  teaching  the  primary  colors  it  is  best  to  use  the  classification 
which  science  has  shown  to  be  the  true  one,  namely  —  red,  green, 
and  violet} 

Viewing  bits  of  colored  silk  through  pieces  of  colored  glass  is 
in  many  respects  a  useful  exercise,  and  will  be  of  material  service 
in  the  development  of  the  color-sense. 

But  the  colors  and  the  color-names  that  the  pupil  must  familiar- 
ize himself  most  thoroughly  with  are  those  that  he  finds  in  nature. 
There  are  the  various  shades  of  red,  as  damask,  crimson,  and 
scarlet ;  the  greens,  as  pistachio,  apple-,  and  pea-green ;  the  blues, 
as  indigo,  sky-,  ultramarine,  and  cobalt-blue.  There  are  also  the 
various  shades  of  lilac,  pink,  pearl,  violet,  salmon,  fawn,  sable  or 

1  The  old  scheme  of  red,  yellow,  and  blue  holds  true  in  mixing  a  few  colors, 
but  fails  lamentably  in  the  majority  of  cases.  The  trouble  arises  from  the 
fact  that  nearly  all  the  red,  blue,  and  yellow  pigments  are  mixed  or  impure 
colors. 


8  HINTS    TO    TEACHERS 

seal-brown,  chestnut-brown,  russet-brown,  iron-gray,  silver-white, 
lemon-yellow,  golden-yellow,  orange-yellow,  straw-yellow,  tan,  and 
a  host  of  others,  all  named  from  objects  in  nature,  and  all  standard 
types  of  color.  In  the  light  of  geography  these  are  more  impor- 
tant than  the  bright  spectrum  colors  which  are  so  largely  used  in 
the  arts.  If  there  is  any  doubt  that  many  of  these  colors  are  un- 
familiar save  in  name,  let  the  teacher  direct  half  a  dozen  pupils  to 
select  a  fawn  or  a  pistachio  shade  from  a  collection  of  colors. 
Besides  these  there  are  the  various  *  lustres/  such  as  vitreous,  pearly, 
metallic,  etc.,  all  used  in  the  description  of  minerals. 

It  may  be  objected  that  lessons  on  color  belong  to  the  domain 
of  physics  rather  than  to  that  of  geography.  This  is  possibly  true, 
but  we  must  also  bear  in  mind  that  color  is  just  as  much  a  feature 
of  nature  as  is  the  mountain,  the  plain,  or  the  valley.  Moreover, 
it  is  also  a  means  of  cultivating  taste,  and  this  of  itself  is  quite  as 
important  a  factor  in  child- culture  as  the  study  of  geography. 

Locality.  —  The  sense  of  the  knowledge  of  position  and  direc- 
tion, which  is  practically  the  'homing  instinct'  of  animals,  is 
rarely  developed  to  any  great  extent  in  mankind,  and  it  therefore 
becomes  a  necessary  part  of  education.  Develop  a  knowledge  of 
the  terms  right  and  left,  and  up  and  down.  Impress  the  fact  that 
these  are  terms  relating  respectively  to  the  human  body  and  the 
centre  of  the  earth.  There  are  various  schemes  for  developing 
an  idea  of  the  position  of  the  cardinal  points,  but  it  is  well  to 
begin  at  once  with  the  direction  of  the  north  star.  The  direction 
of  the  sun's  rising  and  setting  will  be  worth  incidental  mention, 
but  these  should  be  discussed  as  varying  and  not  fixed  points. 
The  direction  of  the  shadow  at  noon  is  an  excellent  point  to  use 
for  illustration,  and  the  ingenious  teacher  can  easily  manufacture 
a  sun-dial  which  will  show  the  time  between  eight  o'clock  a.m. 
and  four  o'clock  p.m.  with  reasonable  accuracy.  This  will  be 
found  an  excellent  device  for  encouraging  pupils  to  observe  the 
apparent  motions  of  the  sun,  both  daily  and  yearly. 

It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  have  the  points  of  the  compass  charted 
on  a  clear  part  of  the  school-room  floor,  or  perhaps  on  the  ceiling. 


PRELIMINARY   ORAL    WORK  9 

In  studying  the  various  problems  under  this  head,  the  use  of 
the  map  must  necessarily  be  taken  up.  Begin  with  a  map  or  dia- 
gram of  the  school-room  or  the  school-grounds,  and  extend  the 
area  mapped  until  it  includes  every  part  of  the  district  with  which 
the  pupil  is  familiar.  The  location  of  the  principal  surroundings 
should  be  represented  approximately  to  a  scale,  and  the  conven- 
tional terms  and  signs  used  in  chartography  should  be  explained 
and  used.  It  will  be  a  matter  of  surprise  to  the  teacher  who  tries 
the  experiment,  what  excellent  results  can  be  obtained  in  these 
first  attempts  at  map -drawing. 


10  HINTS    TO    TEACHERS 


II. 

OUT-OF-DOOR  LESSONS  FOR  PRIMARY  AND  INTER- 
MEDIATE  CLASSES. 

The  out-of-door  lessons  in  geography,  through  which  the  child 
should  receive  his  first  knowledge  of  the  forces  of  nature,  will  of 
necessity  be  confined  mainly  to  the  neighborhood  in  which  he 
lives.  The  method  in  which  these  are  conducted  must  depend  on 
the  judgment  of  the  teacher  as  modified  by  surroundings.  But 
one  direction  can  be  given :  namely,  make  the  most  of  what 
physiographical  features  the  district  affords.  Supplement  this  by 
the  moulding- board,  and  by  the  use  of  whatever  pictures,  models, 
etc.,  can  be  obtained. 

Earth- Sculpture.  —  If  the  surface  of  the  neighborhood  is 
uneven,  hilly,  or  rugged,  the  probabilities  are  that  the  uneven- 
ness  has  been  produced  by  unequal  weathering  or  else  by  the 
direct  action  of  water.  In  many  instances  a  hill  is  formed 
because  its  substance  is  harder  than  the  rock  surrounding  it.  So, 
under  the  action  of  flowing  water,  ice,  rain,  and  other  weathering 
agents,  the  surface  is  unequally  worn  into  hills  and  valleys.  Often 
there  are  strata  of  rock  which  show  the  corrasive  action  of  running 
ivater;  or  perhaps  soil,  masses  of  broken  rock,  etc.,  have  been 
carried  down  the  slope,  and  spread  over  the  valley  below.  By 
a  careful  search  one  may  nearly  always  find  marks  of  the  forces 
which  have  thus  sculptured  the  earth.  In  walking  along  the  slope 
of  the  hill  during  a  hard  rain,  one  may  observe  the  process  of 
earth-sculpture  in  actual  operation.  The  drops  of  rain  that  fall 
on  the  hill-side  are  clear  as  crystal.  When  they  reach  the  bottom, 
however,  they  are  loaded  with  fine  particles  taken  from  the  soiL 


OUT-OF-DOOR  LESSONS  11 

Direct  the  pupils  to  observe  this,  and  develop  by  skilful  question- 
ing the  effect  of  the  process  when  long  continued. 

Cover  a  piece  of  clay  with  sand  on  the  moulding- table.  Incline 
the  latter  slightly,  and  pour  water  on  it  from  a  sprinkler.  The 
sand  is  washed  away,  leaving  a  miniature  hill  of  clay,  and  the 
process  of  hill-making  is  thus  repeated  on  a  small  scale.  In 
a  similar  manner  place  a  small  piece  of  slate  or  a  thin  piece  of 
rock  on  the  sand,  and  apply  the  water.  The  sand  is  washed  out 
under  the  edges  a  little  way,  but  the  slate  protects  the  great  mass 
of  it,  while  all  around  the  sand  is  carried  away.  In  this  manner 
one  may  show  the  formation  of  cliffs  and  certain  types  of  table- 
lands. 

The  study  of  the  hill  will  lead  to  that  of  the  mountain- range. 
The  explanation  of  this  will  be  a  more  difficult  task,  because  the 
essential  feature  of  a  mountain-range  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  is 
a  fold  or  wrinkle  made  by  a  shrinking  of  the  earth.  The  follow- 
ing expedient  has  been  used  by  the  author  for  want  of  a  better 
illustration.  Take  a  piece  of  cloth-covered  elastic  band,  ten  or 
fifteen  inches  in  length,  and  stretch  it  moderately.  Fasten  several 
strips  of  differently  colored  cloth  to  the  elastic  by  means  of  mucil- 
age, and  when  nearly  dry,  allow  the  elastic  to  slowly  contract. 
The  pieces  of  colored  cloth  will  wrinkle  and  crumple,  producing 
an  effect  which,  though  not  a  striking  resemblance  to  mountain- 
folding,  is  nevertheless  a  good  illustration  of  the  manner  in  which 
plication  occurred.  In  studying  the  mountain,  begin  with  the 
range,  as  directed  in  p.  25. 

The  examples  of  earth-sculpture  which  will  appeal  most  strongly 
to  the  child  are  those  which  are  the  work  of  running  water.  The 
little  rain-formed  rill  which  trickles  along  the  road  cuts  a  deep  rut 
in  one  place,  and  spreads  out  in  a  broad  channel  in  another. 
Finally  it  joins  another  rill,  or  else  pours  its  current  into  a  pool 
of  water,  which  is  a  miniature  lake  or  sea.  When  the  rivulet 
reaches  its  goal,  it  possibly  divides  into  several  streams,  forming 
a  delta,  and  perhaps  builds  a  bar  opposite  to  its  mouth. 

In  such  a  stream  the  pupil  can  see  the  operation  of  all  the  laws 


12  HINTS    TO    TEACHERS 

which  govern  the  conduct  of  the  Mississippi  or  the  Colorado. 
Develop  by  skilful  questions,  inductive  and  deductive,  why  the 
rill  cuts  a  deep  canon  in  one  place,  and  deposits  silt  in  another ; 
building  its  banks  and  bed  higher  than  the  surrounding  land,  and 
then  breaking  through  them.  Show  why  it  forms  a  delta,  a  bar, 
or  a  spit,  when  it  reaches  its  outlet.  The  effects  of  rain  combined 
with  the  corrasion  of  running  water  may  also  be  pointed  out. 
Develop  the  fact  that  a  rapidly  flowing  stream  in  a  rainless  region 
will  cut  deep  canons  with  almost  vertical  walls.  If,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  region  is  one  of  considerable  rainfall,  all  the  sharp, 
angular  features  will  be  worn  and  rounded  in  harmonious  forms. 
This  feature  of  erosion  can  be  shown  on  the  moulding-board,  with 
the  aid  of  a  sprinkler. 

It  is  well,  also,  to  observe  the  effect  of  vegetation.  The  dif- 
ference between  the  erosion  of  a  grass-covered  and  a  denuded 
slope  is  so  marked  that  it  will  not  fail  to  be  observed  and  accounted 
for  if  the  pupil's  attention  is  called  to  it.  Pictures  of  the  tnauvaise 
terre  or  ' bad-land'  formation,  of  the  Grand  Canon  of  the  Colorado 
River,  and  of  the  rounded  valleys  of  Oregon,  can  be  made  the  sub- 
jects of  impressive  lessons.  Develop  the  fact  that  vegetation  is 
not  only  protective  to  the  land,  but  that  it  also  retards  the  collection 
of  water  in  the  channels  which  carry  it  off,  thereby  largely  prevent- 
ing '  freshets,'  or  floods.1 

Throw  a  ridge  of  sand  or  mud  across  the  channel  of  a  rill,  and 
make  a  miniature  lake.  By  and  by  the  basin  fills,  and  the  water 
runs  over  the  lowest  part  of  the  rim.  Now  let  the  pupils  observe 
carefully  what  occurs.  At  the  inlet  of  the  lake  the  current  of  the 
stream  is  checked,  and  the  water  begins  to  deposit  silt,  forming  a 
little  bar  at  the  mouth.  The  stream  issuing  from  the  lake  is  like- 
wise at  work  :  it  is  cutting  away  the  rim  of  the  basin  and  lowering 
the  level  of  the  water.     From  these  facts  two  good  lessons  may 

1  In  Arizona  and  Nevada  I  have  more  than  once  seen  a  flood  gather  in  a 
dry  '  wash  '  or  creek-bed  so  quickly,  after  a  heavy  rain,  that  the  water  rolled 
down  the  cafion  almost  like  a  solid  wall.  In  two  minutes  a  dry  creek-bed 
would  become  an  impetuous  torrent.  —  J.  W.  R. 


OUT-OF-DOOR  LESSONS  13 

be  deduced.  First,  that  the  stream  flowing  into  a  lake  is  always 
silting  the  basin.  Secondly,  the  stream  which  flows  from  a  lake 
is  constantly  cutting  the  rim  of  the  basin  lower,  reducing  its  size, 
and  draining  the  water  away.  These  are  the  laws  which  prompted 
Gilbert  to  say,  '  Rivers  are  the  mortal  enemies  of  lakes.' 

When  excursions  can  be  made  to  the  seacoast,  impressive  truths 
may  be  learned  from  the  action  of  the  waves.  The  water-worn 
cliffs  show  what  can  be  accomplished  by  the  continuous  beating 
of  the  waves  upon  hard  rock.  The  sand,  examined  by  a  magnify- 
ing glass,  will  show  the  effect  of  the  never-ceasing  surf.  If  one 
may  have  the  fortune  to  visit  the  coast  of  the  South  Atlantic  States, 
the  long,  narrow  sand-spits  formed  by  the  combined  action  of 
rivers  and  waves,  —  one  of  which  pushes  the  silt  sea-ward,  and  the 
other  land- ward,  —  may  be  made  the  subject  of  a  most  instructive 
lesson. 

The  different  outlines  of  coast  must  not  be  forgotten.  These 
will  be  found  at  the  shore  of  almost  any  pond  or  stream  of  water. 
Indeed,  the  various  types  of  coast  outline  may  be  profitably 
moulded  at  the  shore  if  they  do  not  occur  there.  Occasionally  it 
will  be  necessary  to  obtain  pictures  or  models  of  the  different 
types,  and  reproduce  the  forms  from  these.  Do  not  neglect  to 
show  that  peninsulas  are,  in  most  instances,  ranges  of  mountains 
extending  into  the  sea,  and  that  frequently  a  chain  of  islands,  the 
partly  covered  summits  of  the  range,  lie  beyond  the  point  of  the 
peninsula. 

Do  not  neglect  to  instruct  pupils  in  the  application  of  technical 
names  that  pertain  to  a  natural  feature,  and  do  not  extemporize 
names  where  good  ones  already  exist.  The  abuse  of  this  privilege 
has  already  led  to  much  unnecessary  confusion. 

Slopes.  — The  slopes  of  a  body  of  land  are  commonly  formed 
^by  mountain  systems,  but  in  many  instances  a  low  and  almost  im- 
perceptible ridge  of  land  separates  two  basins  or  watersheds. 
Steep  or  abrupt  slopes  can  always  be  determined  by  the  eye,  and 
the  positive  slopes  of  the  district  should  be  invariably  studied 
when  the  pupil  is  learning  his  first  lessons  in  physical  geography. 


14  HINTS    TO    TEACHERS 

The  gentle  slopes  of  land,  however,  can  be  estimated  naturally  in 
only  one  way ;  namely,  by  observing  the  direction  of  the  water- 
courses. So  helpless  is  the  eye  in  this  respect  that  the  most  ex- 
pert surveyors  and  topographers  are  often  deceived.  The  slopes 
and  hydrographic  basins  of  large  areas  of  land  may  be  conven- 
iently studied  from  both  map  and  moulding-board.  In  using  the 
map  for  this  purpose,  the  boundaries  of  the  various  basins  and 
slopes  are  found  by  drawing  a  light  pencil-line  so  as  to  separate 
the  sources  of  adjacent  rivers  and  tributaries.  In  doing  this  the 
pupil  will  often  discover  the  untruth  of  one  of  the  oldest  traditions 
of  geography ;  namely,  that  the  crests  of  mountain-ranges  corre- 
spond with  divides.  A  few  moments'  work  with  the  pencil  will 
show  that  the  exception  is  true  oftener  than  the  rule. 

Soil.  —  A  knowledge  of  the  various  kinds  of  soil  is  not  only 
a  necessary  part  of  the  study  of  physical  geography,  but  it  has 
a  practical  value  in  education  that  will  not  be  overestimated.  The 
varieties  of  greatest  practical  use  are  sand,  gravel,  clay,  and  loam. 
Develop  by  observation  and  questioning  that  sand  and  gravel  are 
results  of  running  of  water,  and  lead  the  pupil  to  discover  how 
rough  fragments  of  rock  are  converted  into  rounded  pebbles.  Do 
not  make  the  mistake  of  teaching  that  the  soil  of  deserts  is  com- 
posed of  sand ;  for  it  is  very  rarely  that  sand  is  found  in  desert 
regions.  Pure  sand  is  composed  of  the  mineral  silica,  and  is  a 
product  of  the  seashore.  The  so-called  sand  of  the  desert  may 
be  composed  of  almost  any  kind  of  dry,  pulverized  earth. 

Develop  the  idea  that  the  loams  are  nearly  always  disintegrated 
or  *  rotten  '  rock,  finely  pulverized,  and  mixed  with  decayed  vege- 
table matter.  In  many  instances  loam  has  been  deposited  by 
rivers,  but  sometimes  it  has  been  found  in  situ.  In  the  former 
case  it  is  called  alluvial,  in  the  latter,  sedentary  soil.  The  forma- 
tion of  loam  will  be  somewhat  difficult  of  explanation,  but  it  is 
not  beyond  the  understanding  of  even  the  younger  pupils.  The 
action  of  the  angle-,  or  earth-worm,  which  is  constantly  mixing 
and  digesting  rich,  loamy  soils  within  its  alimentary  canal,  will 
make  the  subject  of  an  excellent  lesson. 


OUT-OF-DOOR  LESSONS  15 

In  studying  the  properties  of  clay,  it  will  be  well  to  call  attention 
to  its  imperviousness  to  water,  and  its  extreme  hardness  when 
dry.  Illustrate  its  commercial  value  in  the  manufacture  of  brick, 
pottery,  etc.,  and  its  special  value  in  holding  near  the  surface  of 
the  earth  much  of  the  water  that  falls  in  the  form  of  rain  and  snow. 

Vegetation.  —  The  first  lessons  on  vegetable  life  should  be  of 
a  very  practical  kind.  The  study  of  the  germination  of  seeds, 
although  hardly  within  the  domain  of  geography,  is  an  excellent 
exercise  because  it  is  an  incentive  to  habits  of  observation. 
The  flower-garden  may  be  made  almost  as  useful  as  the  black- 
board. There  is  no  reason  why  the  effects  of  heat  and  moisture 
on  soil  should  not  be  as  closely  studied  in  the  country  school 
as  in  the  higher  school  of  learning.  Almost  every  law  which 
underlies  the  geographical  distribution  of  plants  may  be  illus- 
trated in  the  school  district. 

Besides  the  grains,  the  fruits,  and  the  vegetables  of  commercial 
value,  it  will  be  well  to  study  the  large  class  of  plants  ordinarily 
classed  as  '  weeds.'  Nearly  all  of  these  have  more  or  less  value 
to  mankind,  or  else  they  are  positively  baneful.  A  knowledge  of 
the  latter  is  just  as  important  as  that  of  the  former ;  more  espe- 
cially is  it  necessary  to  learn  how  the  seeds  of  the  latter  are  dis- 
tributed. The  '  down '  of  the  Canada  thistle  and  the  dandelion, 
and  the  winged  seeds  of  the  maple  may  be  used  to  illustrate  this. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  encourage  pupils  to  collect  and  prepare  a 
herbarium  for  the  use  of  the  school,  arranging  and  classifying  the 
plants  of  the  neighborhood  more  with  reference  to  their  commer- 
cial and  economic  value  than  with  respect  to  their  botanical  places. 
Specimens  of  all  the  timber  growing  in  the  district  may  be  profit- 
ably collected  and  preserved ;  one  side  of  the  specimen  being  left 
in  its  natural  state,  the  other  planed,  and  dressed  with  oil. 

Animals.  —  The  study  of  animal  life  is  also  an  important  factor 
in  the  legitimate  work  of  geography.  In  many  instances  the  study 
may  be  made  observational.  The  habits  and  characteristics  of 
domestic  animals  will  furnish  a  fund  of  useful  information.  It 
will  be  well  also  to  discriminate  between  wild  animals  that  are 


16  HINTS    TO    TEACHERS 

useful  and  those  that  are  hurtful  to  the  husbandman.  The  study 
of  the  birds  and  insects  with  which  the  pupil  is  familiar  will 
be  one  of  great  utility.  If  the  pupils  are  encouraged  to  make 
a  classified  list  of  all  the  forms  of  animal  life  found  in  the  district, 
the  extent  of  the  list  will  be  a  matter  of  surprise.  When  the  list 
is  discussed  in  detail,  it  will  probably  lead  to  the  discovery  that, 
in  general,  insects  have  the  various  forms  of  grub,  chrysalis,  and 
articulate  stage. 

Much  may  be  done  by  reading  stories  about  wild  animals ;  in 
every  case  supplementing  the  story  by  pictures.  The  latter  may 
be  obtained  in  colors  for  a  very  small  sum  of  money.  Perhaps 
more  can  be  done  in  the  way  of  developmental  work  by  skilful 
questioning  than  by  observation  and  reading.  The  value  of  the 
list  of  questions  given  in  Frye's  '  Child  and  Nature,'  pp.  112  and 
113,  will  be  manifest  to  every  live  teacher. 

Minerals.  —  There  are  few  districts  which  do  not  abound  in 
mineral  wealth.  In  the  prairie  states  the  list  will  be  found  to  be 
surprisingly  large,  while  in  the  rolling  and  mountainous  regions 
the  list  may  easily  be  extended  beyond  the  limit  of  utility.  The 
most  important  are,  of  course,  the  minerals  of  economic  use.  It 
will  be  well  to  have  a  collection  of  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  of 
these,  which  should  be  labelled  and  mounted  either  on  a  block  or 
a  piece  of  stout  card.  It  should  comprise,  among  others,  spec- 
imens of  the  different  varieties  of  coal  arranged  in  a  series ;  sev- 
eral varieties  of  iron  ore,  notably  hematite,  Iimonite,  magnetite, 
lodestone,  and  pyrites.  Copper,  zinc,  nickel,  lead,  quicksilver, 
and  tin  ores  may  be  obtained  without  much  difficulty,  and  in 
every  case  the  metal  yielded  by  the  ore  should  be  exhibited. 
Native  specimens  of  rock-salt,  sulphur,  gypsum,  and  the  ochres 
may  be  obtained  at  a  trifling  expense.  Equally  important  are 
the  building  stones,  such  as  granite  (syenite  and  gneiss),  brown 
sandstone,  white  sandstone,  marble,  and  other  limestones,  slate, 
clay,  etc.  It  is  best  to  have  the  pupils  themselves  collect  or 
obtain  the  specimens.  They  should  be  labelled  and  mounted  in 
as  attractive  a  manner  as  possible. 


OUT-OF-DOOR  LESSONS  17 

The  Atmosphere.  —  It  is  well  to  impress  the  fact  that  the 
atmosphere  is  just  as  much  a  part  of  the  earth  as  the  water  or 
the  solid  rock.  Do  not  allow  the  notion  to  be  developed  that  all 
space  is  filled  with  air,  and  do  not  convey  the  idea  that  the  earth 
'  floats  in  air.'  Emphasize  the  fact  that  the  air  is  the  outer  part 
of  the  earth,  and  moves  with  it  in  space. 

That  air  has  weight  is  always  more  or  less  difficult  to  demon- 
strate to  a  class,  not  because  it  may  not  be  shown  by  simple 
experiments,  but  from  the  very  common  opinion  that  there  is  a 
force  generally  known  as  l  suction.'  The  boy's  toy  called  the 
'  sucker,'  a  piece  of  thick,  pliable  leather,  with  a  string  fastened 
to  the  centre,  is  instructive  as  a  means  of  illustration.  When  the 
sucker  is  saturated  with  water,  and  pushed  firmly  against  a  smooth 
board  or  a  polished  boulder,  it  requires  considerable  force  to  pull 
it  away.  The  most  convincing  proof  of  the  weight  of  air,  how- 
ever, may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  a  two-gallon  glass  jar,  when 
exhausted  by  means  of  the  air-pump,  loses  about  half  an  ounce 
in  weight. 

It  will  be  well,  also,  to  develop  the  fact  that  the  column  of  mer- 
cury in  the  barometer  exactly  balances  or  weighs  a  column  of  air 
of  equal  area.  A  serviceable  barometer  may  be  easily  constructed 
by  inverting  a  tube  about  thirty-six  inches  long,  filled  with  quick- 
silver, so  that  the  open  end  rests  in  a  small  vessel  half  full  of  the 
same  metal.  Measure  the  height  of  the  quicksilver  in  the  tube, 
and  fasten  upon  it  a  paper  scale  of  inches  and  tenths  so  as  to 
mark  the  height  of  the  column.  The  instrument  thus  constructed 
will  show  the  changes  in  the  pressure  (weight)  of  the  atmosphere 
with  reasonable  accuracy. 

Show  by  any  of  the  well-known  experiments  that  air  when 
heated  expands  in  volume,  therefore  becoming,  bulk  for  bulk, 
lighter  than  cold  air.  The  boy's  whirligig  held  over  a  hot  stove 
at  once  acquires  a  rapid  motion  because  of  the  ascending  current 
of  warm  air.  Do  not  allow  the  impression  to  obtain  that  hot 
air  '  rises '  because  of  its  lightness.  What  really  occurs  is,  that 
heavier  cold  air  flows  in  and  pushes  it  upwards. 


18  HINTS    TO    TEACHERS 

The  mutual  but  adverse  motions  of  cold  and  warm  currents  of 
air  may  be  best  shown  by  the  time-worn  experiment  of  holding 
two  lighted  candles,  one  at  the  top,  the  other  at  the  bottom  of  a 
door  which  opens  into  a  heated  room.  In  the  study  of  the  winds, 
it  is  not  easy  to  find  an  illustration  of  wider  application  than  this. 
It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  have  pupils  observe  daily  the  motions  of 
the  winds,  especially  the  direction  of  the  wind  which  precedes 
storms  and  that  with  which  the  storm  clears. 

The  moisture  in  the  atmosphere  may  be  shown  in  different 
ways.  The  '  drying  up '  of  pools  of  water  after  a  rain,  the  evapora- 
tion of  water  in  an  open  vessel  exposed  to  the  air,  and  the  disap- 
pearance of  the  dew  after  sunrise,  may  be  made  the  subjects  of 
extremely  entertaining  lessons.  That  moisture  is  present  in  the 
dry  air  of  a  room  may  be  shown  by  filling  a  pitcher  or  other  vessel 
with  iced  water.  As  the  atmospheric  moisture  is  condensed  on 
the  outside  of  the  vessel,  wipe  the  latter,  and  allow  it  to  condense 
again,  as  a  further  proof.  Lead,  step  by  step,  to  the  fact  that  when 
the  temperature  is  lowered  quickly,  much  of  the  vapor  of  water  is 
changed  to  its  ordinary  liquid  form,  and  appears  as  dew,  mist,  fog, 
cloud,  or  rain. 

It  will  be  an  excellent  plan  to  have  pupils  make  daily  observa- 
tions on  the  winds,  clouds,  and  general  condition  of  the  weather. 
Such  observations  may  have  but  little  worth  in  themselves,  but 
they  are  direct  means  to  a  very  valuable  end.  In  many  instances 
it  will  be  practicable  to  have  the  daily  weather  indications  dis- 
played in  the  school-room,  and  in  any  case,  good  results  will 
invariably  come  from  keeping  a  daily  weather-record. 

Seasons.  —  Many  instructive  lessons  may  be  drawn  from  the 
study  of  the  astronomical  side  of  geography.  With  primary  pupils 
these  will  of  necessity  be  fragmentary  and  incomplete.  The  pupil 
will,  however,  become  familiar  with  many  facts  which  will  render 
the  study  of  mathematical  geography  far  easier  in  after  years. 

Have  the  pupils  note  the  position  of  the  sun  at  different  times 
in  the  day,  and  explain  to  them  the  phenomena  of  its  apparent 
motions.     Note  also  the  change  in  the  position  of  the  sun  at  ris- 


OUT-OF-DOOR  LESSONS  19 

ing  or  at  setting  during  each  month  in  the  year.  Measure  the 
shadow  of  any  fixed  object  at  noon,  during  the  successive  months 
in  the  year.  Some  of  these  phenomena  will  be  difficult  of  explana- 
tion to  younger  pupils,  and  it  is  perhaps  better  to  attempt  none  — 
certainly  none  that  will  confuse.  It  will  be  practical,  however,  to 
connect  the  low  noon  sun  and  its  northerly  position  at  rising  and 
setting,  with  the  short  days,  long  nights,  and  cold  weather  of  win- 
ter. This,  at  least,  can  be  understood  by  the  most  immature 
pupils. 

The  foregoing  chapter,  as  is  designated  by  its  title,  is  intended 
to  suggest  a  certain  line  of  out-of-door  work.  Some  of  the  ideas 
suggested  are  doubtless  beyond  the  comprehension  of  very  young 
pupils ;  others  may  be  profitably  repeated  in  a  more  systematic 
order  when  the  pupil  has  reached  advanced  work  in  geography. 
The  success  of  out-of-door  work  will  depend  mainly  on  the  judg- 
ment of  the  teacher  in  selecting  the  material  for  the  illustration  of 
these  object  lessons.  It  will  depend  largely,  also,  upon  the  skill 
in  interpreting  natural  phenomena,  for  any  teacher  who  imagines 
that  such  work  can  be  done  without  careful  preparation  will  fail 
ignominiously  in  accomplishing  tangible  results.  The  teacher 
must  not  only  acquaint  himself  with  the  study  of  physiography  in 
general,  but  also  with  that  of  the  district  in  detail  in  order  to  im- 
part lessons  that  carry  conviction. 

During  the  period  in  which  the  out-of-door  work  is  carried  on, 
the  more  systematic  in-door  lessons  should  not  be  neglected.  If 
a  text-book  is  used,  supplement  and  illustrate  it  with  the  moulding- 
board,  with  pictures,  and  with  instructive  stories  from  authentic 
books  of  travel.1  If  the  mental  pictures  can  be  imprinted  in  the 
pupil's  mind,  almost  any  means  will  justify  the  end. 

With  the  consideration  of  the  foregoing  topics,  which  may  em- 
brace a  period  of  two  years  of  time,  there  is  a  certain  amount  of 

1  Do  not  forget  that  there  is  much  worthless  literature  under  the  name  of 
books  of  travel.  The  books  and  sketches  of  inexperienced  tourists  who  make 
flying  trips  through  foreign  places  may  be  entertaining,  but  they  are  generally 
incorrect  with  regard  to  geographical  information. 


20  HINTS    TO    TEACHERS 

other  observational  work  which  also  is  included  in  geography; 
namely,  the  study  of  people,  their  social  life,  government,  re- 
ligion, etc.  Much  of  this  must  be  done  with  the  aid  of  pictures 
and  books  of  travel.  Still  another  feature  that  will  constantly 
come  to  the  foreground  is  the  geography  of  commerce.  In  spite 
of  sentiment,  the  commercial  idea  is  the  one  upon  which  all 
study  and  mental  development  centres.  The  opinion  as  to  '  what 
ought  to  be '  will  not  change  the  cold  facts  of  the  case,  and  the 
study  of  the  commercial  side  will  always  be  the  practical  objective 
point  of  geography.  We  may  as  well  open  our  eyes  to  the  fact 
that  all  human  energy  is  bent  to  the  purpose  of  procuring  food 
and  shelter.  The  net -work  of  railways,  the  fleets  of  steamers  and 
sailing  vessels,  the  coal  and  iron  mines,  the  thousands  of  factories, 
the  entire  energy  of  the  husbandman,  have  but  one  end  in  view  — 
to  allay  hunger.  All  the  mechanical  energies  of  man  are  devoted 
indirectly  to  the  production  and  transportation  of  food.  Is  it 
singular  then  that  there  are  a  few  hard-headed,  unsentimental  peo- 
ple who  will  persist  in  putting  the  study  of  geography  on  a  com- 
mercial basis  ?  A  journey  through  a  grocery  store  will  make  a  sub- 
ject for  many  excellent  object  lessons,  and  a  history  of  the  travels 
of  a  battered  coin  will  make  a  subject  for  many  a  written  exercise. 
A  well-known  teacher  in  Boston  requires  one  or  more  pupils  to 
board  nearly  every  ship  arriving  at  that  city  from  a  foreign  port,  in 
order  to  learn  the  character  of  its  cargo.  It  is  safe  to  affirm 
that  the  pupils  of  that  school  know  something  about  the  geography 
of  commerce  that  cannot  be  learned  from  text-books. 

In  teaching  younger  pupils,  it  will  be  an  excellent  plan  to  dis- 
play commercial  products  in  their  various  stages  of  manufacture. 
For  instance,  the  cotton  industry  may  be  illustrated  by  cotton  in 
the  boll,  in  the  raw  or  unginned  state,  in  the  spun  fibre,  and  in 
various  textile  fabrics.  A  similar  plan  may  be  adopted  with  other 
textile  goods,  with  the  common  ores  which  yield  useful  metals,  and 
with  articles  of  ordinary  food.  The  various  grades  of  sugar,  tea, 
coffee,  etc.,  are  well  worth  the  acquaintance  of  the  pupil ;  and  the 
usual  processes  through  which  grain  passes  in  its  journey  from 


OUT-OF-DOOR  LESSONS  21 

the  field  to  the  table  will  be  sources  of  instructive  object  lessons. 
If  the  teacher  has  any  doubts  about  the  value  of  the  commercial 
importance  of  geography,1  follow  the  commercial  history  of  an 
illustrated  school  book  from  the  time  the  raw  materials  employed 
in  its  manufacture  are  produced,  until  the  finished  volume  is  placed 
in  the  hands  of  the  pupil.  In  the  printer  and  binder's  establish- 
ment alone,  nearly  one  hundred  distinct  processes  are  necessary 
to  produce  an  electrotyped  book. 

1 '  In  considering  geography  we  deal  with  a  subject  particularly  interesting 
because  of  its  relations  to  man.  It  is  the  first  of  the  elementary  studies  which 
teaches  the  child  that  he  is  part  of  a  community,  that  the  community  is  part  of 
a  nation,  that  the  nation  is  part  of  the  human  race.  He  now  learns  how  he 
differs  from  his  European  brothers  in  character,  politics,  society;  and  that 
these  differences  result  from  differences  in  the  climate,  the  industries,  and  the 
geography  of  their  respective  countries.  He  begins  to  realize  his  dependence 
upon  his  fellow-beings.  The  coffee  he  drinks  is  prepared  from  beans  gathered 
by  savages  in  South  America  or  in  the  East  Indies.  His  tea  is  steeped  from 
leaves  dried  by  the  Japanese  or  the  Chinamen.  Perhaps  he  sweetens  his  South 
Carolina  rice  with  Cuban  sugar.  He  eats  mackerel  caught  in  the  fiords  of 
Norway.  Saginaw  salt  combines  with  India  pepper  to  give  relish  to  his  Ken- 
tuckian  sweet  potato.  Mediterranean  sardines  are  served  on  slices  of  Califor- 
nian  lemons.  His  dime  coined  from  silver  mined  in  Nevada  buys  dates 
plucked  from  palms  in  Africa.  Possibly  he  corks  his  ink  bottle  with  a  bit  of 
bark  from  a  tree  growing  in  Spain.  Thus  every  article  of  commerce  testifies 
to  the  labor  of  his  fellow-beings  far  and  near.  Distant  countries  are  brought 
nearer  by  handling  these  commodities.  But  this  dependence  upon  remote 
parts  is  due  to  climate;  and  climate  depends  upon  altitude,  latitude,  forests, 
winds,  rains,  oceanic  currents.  These  subjects  are  not  treated  upon  in  descrip- 
tive geography;  hence  to  give  satisfactory  explanations,  the  teacher  must 
understand  physical  geography,  which  in  turn  must  be  backed  by  natural 
philosophy.  Indeed,  a  separation  of  descriptive  and  physical  geography  is 
impossible.'  —  Miss  T.  E.  Reul,  in  Wisconsin  Journal  of  Education. 


22  HINTS   TO    TEACHERS 


III. 

PICTURES  AND   MODELS   WITH   RESPECT  TO 
GEOGRAPHICAL   FORMS. 

The  diversified  topography  of  the  earth's  surface  may  be 
summed  up  in  the  conventional  term  relief,  and  the  study  of  the 
various  types  of  relief,  together  with  the  laws  which  underlie  it, 
practically  comprise  about  all  that  is  properly  included  in  physical 
geography.  Gravitation  has  given  the  earth,  as  well  as  similar 
heavenly  bodies,  a  slightly  modified  spherical  shape,  but  the  relief 
features  of  the  earth's  surface  are  due  to  two  agents  which  are 
continuous  in  operation  and  which  are  mutually  opposed  the  one 
to  the  other.     These  agents  are  secular  cooling  and  solar  heat. 

In  parting  with  its  heat,  the  earth  follows  the  same  law  that 
governs  other  bodies,  contracting  in  bulk  as  the  loss  of  heat  goes 
on.  Moreover,  as  the  loss  of  heat  is  relatively  greater  in  the 
heated  interior  than  in  what  is,  for  convenience,  called  the  crust, 
the  contraction  of  the  interior  mass  is  greater  than  that  of  the 
exterior  crust,  so  that  the  latter,  in  fitting  itself  about  a  constantly 
shrinking  mass,  must  of  necessity  become  wrinkled  and  cockled. 
The  operation  of  this  law  has  raised  the  immense  masses  of  land 
we  call  continents  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  wrinkled  and 
crumpled  the  surface  into  the  long,  corrugated  folds  we  call 
mountain- ranges,  and  cockled  level  surfaces  into  plateaus  or 
depressed  them  into  basins.  In  short,  all  the  great  disturbances 
of  level  that  are  even  now  going  on,  are  due  mainly  to  the  secu- 
lar cooling  of  the  earth. 

The  effect  of  solar  heat  upon  the  earth's  surface  is  just  the  oppo- 
site. Lifting  the  water  from  the  ocean  as  an  invisible  vapor,  it 
pours  it  upon  the  land  \  and  in  the  form  of  rain,  frost,  ice,  or  run- 


PICTURES  AND  MODELS  23 

ning  streams,  the  water  is  constantly  at  work  tearing  away  the 
mountains  and  levelling  off  the  various  inequalities  of  surface. 
By  the  action  of  this  agent  mountain-ranges  are  sculptured  into 
ridges,  and  their  flanks  are  re-formed  into  the  piedmont  lands 
about  their  bases  ;  while  the  finer  detritus  is  carried  to  the  sea  and 
cast  along  the  shore  in  the  form  of  spits,  or  spread  over  the  val- 
leys, forming  wide  alluvial  plains.  Canons  are  cut  in  high  pla- 
teaus, or,  perhaps  through  mountain-ranges,  and  lake-basins  are 
filled  and  levelled.  So  constant  and  persistent  is  the  operation  of 
this  force  that  almost  every  passing  shower  leaves  its  visible  mark 
on  the  earth's  surface. 

Now  these  changes  do  not  come  about  hap-hazard,  nor  is  each 
a  law  and  type  unto  itself.  On  the  contrary,  just  as  we  discern 
types  in  botany  or  in  natural  history,  —  just  as  the  operation  of  cer- 
tain laws  will  produce  typical  forms  and  structures,  —  so  also  the 
operations  of  the  forces  which  most  concern  physical  geography 
may  be  reduced  to  types,  and  these  types  are  reasonably  constant 
in  form  and  in  structure.  Moreover,  if  we  recognize  physical  geog- 
raphy as  a  science,  we  must  recognize  types  of  earth-sculpture, 
just  as  in  the  study  of  natural  history  we  recognize  types  of 
organic  structure. 

The  study  of  relief  may  be  accomplished  in  various  ways.  The 
teacher  may  convey  the  concepts  orally  to  the  pupil,  and  if  the 
former  has  been  so  fortunate  as  to  have  seen  something  of  the 
world,  and  has  the  capability  to  vividly  impart  instruction,  much 
excellent  work  may  be  accomplished.  It  is  perhaps  natural, 
under  such  circumstances,  to  resort  to  the  use  of  pictures.  Even 
with  advanced  classes  the  live  teacher  will  find  her  pictorial  scrap- 
book  about  as  useful  as  the  text-book.  The  various  illustrated 
papers,  especially  such  as  Frank  Leslie's,  Harper's,  the  Scientific 
American,  and  the  illustrated  magazines,  always  contain  a  host  of 
excellent  illustrations.  Generally,  those  pictures  are  the  most 
valuable  which  present  a  broad  stretch  of  country  with  consider- 
able diversity  of  area.  No  other  view  of  a  landscape  is  so  beau- 
tiful or  so  instructive   as  that  which  one  obtains   from  a  great 


24  HINTS   TO    TEACHERS 

elevation.  One  who  has  not  beheld  this  vast  abyss  from  some 
overhanging  buttress  of  Point  Sublime,  cannot  well  comprehend 
the  profound  depths  of  the  Grand  Canon  of  the  Colorado  j  nor  is 
it  possible  to  appreciate  the  immensity  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
without  viewing  the  gigantic  folds  and  sculptured  peaks  from  some 
point  like  Bellevue,  Sierra  Blanca,  or  Gray's  Peak. 

And  the  reason  is  obvious.  It  is  not  merely  a  matter  of  height 
nor  of  depth,  nor  of  the  vast  proportions  of  any  one  object.  It  is 
the  far-reaching  panoramic  view  which  enables  one  not  only  to 
behold  an  individual  feature,  but  also  to  measure  and  contrast  it 
with  all  other  features,  that  so  delights  the  mind.  It  goes  without 
saying  that  a  well-chosen  series  of  pictures  is  better  than  a  volume 
on  improved  methods  of  teaching.  Perhaps  it  would  not  be  going 
too  far  to  say  that  a  skilful  teacher  of  physical  geography  could 
do  better  work  with  a  carefully  selected  series  of  pictures  and 
models  without  the  text,  than  by  using  a  manual  which  was  all 
text  and  no  pictures. 

In  the  use  of  pictures,  success  will  largely  depend  on  the  judg- 
ment of  the  teacher  in  making  the  selections.  The  essential 
point  is  to  take  such  as  shall  represent  types :  for  use  in  political 
geography,  these  may  be  supplemented  by  a  miscellaneous  list 
which  shall  include  modes  of  transportation,  bird's-eye  views  of 
cities,  and  the  various  industries,  and  studies  in  -social  life.  With 
respect  to  the  classified  types  in  physical  geography,  the  following 
list  will  be  found  useful.1 

Coast-forms.  —  The  high,  rock-bound  shore,  with  deep  inden- 
tations :  The  coasts  of  Maine,  Scotland,  Alaska,  etc.,  are  examples. 

The  cliff-girt  coast  with  a  low,  sandy  beach :  The  cliffs  at  New- 
port are  examples. 

The  low,  sandy  shore  partly  enclosed  by  long,  wave-formed 
islands,  or  sand-spits  :  The  Jersey  coast  is  an  example. 

1  Many  excellent  photographs  representing  the  various  types  of  earth- 
sculpture  may  be  procured  through  Messrs.  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.  A  large  num- 
ber of  finely  colored  views  may  be  procured  from  the  Prang  Educational 
Company. 


PICTURES  AND   MODELS  25 

Capes,  peninsulas,  isthmuses,  and  islands  may  also  be  conven- 
iently taught  in  considering  the  various  forms  of  coast-outline. 
Each  may  be  represented  in  any  of  the  three  forms.  It  is  well, 
by  all  means,  to  obtain  one  or  more  pictures  showing  the  effects 
of  wave-beating.  Almost  any  illustration  of  the  scenery  along  the 
coasts  of  Norway,  Scotland,  or  even  the  New  England  coast,  will 
furnish  an  example.  The  pictured  rocks  of  Lake  Superior  are 
admirable  illustrations. 

The  various  forms  of  littoral  waters  may  also  be  studied  in  con- 
nection with  coast-forms.  These  are  as  well  studied  from  pictures 
as  from  the  moulding-board. 

Inequalities  of  Surface  by  Erosion.  — A  bird's-eye  view  of 
low  hills  rounded  off  by  general  erosion,  the  result  of  copious 
rains  :  The  foot-hills  and  piedmont  lands  of  the  Alleghany  Moun- 
tains are  good  examples. 

A  bird's-eye  view  showing  hills  and  crags  with  sharp,  angular 
outlines,  the  result  of  an  arid  climate  :  This  type  is  finely  exem- 
plified in  the  ridges,  peaks,  and  spires  of  the  plateau  region  — 
especially  in  that  part  of  the  canon  of  the  Colorado  River  known 
as  the  '  Land  of  the  Standing  Rocks.' 

Cliff-formation,  showing  how  a  layer  of  hard  volcanic  rock 
resting  upon  the  top  of  softer  stratified  rock  prevents  erosion  at 
the  upper  surface,  while  the  edges,  exposed  by  the  corrasion  of 
running  streams,  are  eroded  and  sapped  by  rain  :  The  mesas  or 
table-lands  of  the  Plains  of  the  Columbia  are  examples. 

Mauvaise-terre,  or  ?  bad-land '  formation,  showing  the  effects 
of  running  water  on  light  sedentary  soils  unprotected  by  vege- 
tation :  The  Bad  Lands  of  Dakota  and  Nebraska  are  fine 
examples. 

A  canon  with  terraced,  or  with  nearly  vertical  walls  made  by  a 
stream  flowing  in  an  arid  region  :  The  canon  of  the  Colorado 
River  and  those  of  its  tributaries  are  examples. 

A  wide  valley  with  rounded  sides  and  outlines.  The  result  of  a 
stream  flowing  through  a  region  supplied  with  abundant  rain,  there 
is  much  general  erosion  and  little  stream-corrasion  :  This  type  of 


26  HINTS    TO    TEACHERS 

erosion  may  be  observed  in  almost  every  stream  that  flows  through 
undulating  land. 

A  region  formerly  traversed  by  a  glacier.  The  surface  is  worn 
into  roches  moutonnees,  or  '  sheep-backs/  and  is  strewn  with  rounded 
boulders.  Long  and  narrow  lakes  showing  lineal  or  radial  arrange- 
ment are  numerous  :  Almost  any  part  of  the  New  England  States 
or  northern  New  Jersey  will  furnish  a  good  illustration. 

Inequalities  from  Secular  Contraction,  Vulcanology,  etc. 
A  bird's-eye  view  of  a  mountain-range.    (See  note,  p.  33.) 

A  bird's-eye  view  of  a  mountain-system,  showing  a  group  of 
folds  constituting  a  highland. 

A  peak  —  not  as  an  isolated  butte,  but  as  the  part  of  the 
summit  of  a  range,  higher  than  the  adjacent  crest :  Pictures  of 
Rocky  Mountain  Scenery  are  usually  prolific  with  respect  to 
typical  peaks. 

A  volcanic  mountain  as  a  whole  :  Illustrations  (from  photo- 
graphs) of  Mounts  Shasta,  Tacoma,  or  Hood  will  be  admirable 
for  this  purpose. 

A  volcano  in  eruption :  Instantaneous  photographic  views  of 
Vesuvius  in  eruption  may  be  procured.  Engravings  of  the  same 
may  be  found  in  several  text-books. 

The  crater  of  a  volcano  :  Photographs  of  the  crater  of  Vesuvius, 
and  also  that  of  Kilauea,  show  the  essential  features  of  each  volcano 
very  vividly.  A  telescopic  photograph  of  Copernicus,  a  lunar  vol- 
cano, will  greatly  add  to  the  value  of  the  foregoing. 

A  lava  flood  :  Photographs  of  this  character  may  be  easily  pro- 
cured ;  they  are  useful  in  showing  the  texture  of  different  kinds  of 
lava. 

A  series  of  pictures  of  Vesuvius  between  successive  eruptions 
will  be  found  highly  instructive.  Such  a  series  may  be  found  in 
Volcanoes  and  Earthquakes  (Mungo  Ponton,  —  T.  Nelson  6°  Co., 
London) . 

A  geyser  in  eruption  :  Photographs  of  Old  Faithful,  Castle  Gey- 
ser and  others  in  Yellowstone  Park  may  be  readily  obtained. 

The  travertine  and  sinter  deposits  of  mineral  springs  :  The  ter- 


PICTURES  AND  MODELS  27 

raced  basins  of  Mammoth  Hot  Springs,  Yellowstone  Park,  are  fine 
examples. 

Cracks  and  crevices  formed  by  earthquakes  :  Instructive  photo- 
graphs of  the  Charleston  earthquake  may  be  obtained  from  the 
U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 

Meteorology,  etc.  —  Typical  forms  of  clouds  :  Many  dealers 
in  photographic  views  keep  good  specimens. 

Forms  of  snowflakes  :  Most  of  the  physical  geographies  have 
suitable  illustrations. 

Glaciers  :  Photographs  of  various  European  and  American  gla- 
ciers are  readily  attainable.  If  possible,  select  one  that  shows  the 
origin  and  termination  of  the  glacier.  It  is  especially  desirable  to 
have  at  least  one  view  showing  the  end  of  a  glacier  as  the  source 
of  a  river. 

A  glacier  terminating  at  the  sea,  showing  the  formation  of  ice- 
bergs by  ' calving ' :  Photographs  of  Muir  Glacier,  Alaska,  show 
this  on  a  small  scale.  It  is  well  illustrated  by  profile  views 
in  several  of  the  manuals  of  geology  —  notably  in  Prestwich's 
Geology. 

A  cyclone  with  l  funnel-cloud '  :  One  or  two  good  illustrations 
may  be  found  in  the  publications  of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau. 

Waterspouts  :  Illustrations  may  be  found  in  most  physical  geog- 
raphies. 

Drainage.  —  A  river  in  its  upper  course:  Any  picture  of  a 
mountain  torrent  will  answer. 

A  river  in  its  middle  course  :  Views  along  any  large  river  will 
answer,  the  subject  being  selected,  as  far  as  possible,  to  show  that 
it  neither  corrades  its  banks  nor  deposits  silt  at  the  ordinary  stage 
of  water. 

A  river  along  its  lower  course  :  The  illustration  should,  if  pos- 
sible, be  a  bird's-eye  view  showing  the  sinuous  windings  of  the 
river ;  the  water  not  being  able  to  carry  its  silt  must  deposit  it, 
and  thereafter  flow  around  it. 

A  cataract :  A  photograph  of  Niagara,  of  Yosemite,  or  of  the 
Yellowstone  Falls  will  be  an  admirable  illustration. 


28  HINTS   TO    TEACHERS 

A  variety  of  lake  views  :  It  would  be  well  to  have  a  map  of  the 
lake  district  of  New  York,  showing  the  salient  features  of  glacial 
lakes. 

The  foregoing  indicate  a  few  only  of  the  various  types  of  nat- 
ural scenery.  The  miscellaneous  collection  should  contain  a  goodly 
assortment  of  commercial  and  industrial  views,  such  as  factories, 
mines  of  every  character,  methods  of  transportation,  plants  of 
economic  and  industrial  use,  —  in  short,  take  any  picture  that  will 
instruct  and  reject  none  that  has  a  teaching  value. 

It  is  well  to  impress  the  fact  that  such  a  picture  scrap-book 
cannot  be  compiled  in  a  day.1  On  the  contrary,  it  may  require 
years  to  select  illustrations  of  all  the  types  described  in  this  chap- 
ter. The  teacher  who  compiles  a  book  of  this  character  must  be 
content  with  many  poor  and  faulty  illustrations  at  first.  These 
may  be  replaced  from  time  to  time  with  more  suitable  and  better 
ones  as  the  opportunity  to  procure  them  occurs.  It  is  well,  more- 
over, to  have  several  pictures  to  illustrate  the  same  type.  In  a 
single  view  the  salient  feature  may  be  overshadowed,  or  it  may 
not  be  prominently  developed.  But  when  the  same  feature  is 
common  to  a  number  of  illustrations  it  can  hardly  escape  notice. 
Do  not  reject  a  picture  because  it  is  poorly  printed  or  because  it 
is  coarsely  engraved.  Types  of  earth-sculpture,  and  not  art-speci- 
mens, are  the  illustrations  required,  and  a  coarse,  poorly- engraved 
picture  may  often  have  a  teaching  quality  that  will  not  be  found 
in  a  beautifully  engraved  artist-proof.  On  the  contrary,  do  not 
fail  to  reject  a  view  that  is  untruthful  or  one  that  needlessly  ex- 
aggerates nature.  The  illustrations  of  geographical  scenery  in 
such  publications  as  Harper's,  the  Century,  and  Scribner's  maga- 
zines are  generally  true  to  nature.  In  many  instances  they  are 
photogravures,  and  often  they  are  what  is  technically  known 
as  i  bleaches,'  —  that   is,  a   pen-  or  brush-drawing  over  a  partly 

1  I  think  it  required  about  two  and  a  half  years  to  gather  the  illustrations  for 
my  series  of  geographies.  In  all,  I  collected  several  hundred  views.  Some 
of  these  were  selected  in  Europe;  some  came  from  Asia;  and  many  were 
procured  in  travelling  about  the  Western  Cordilleras.  —  J.  W.  R, 


PICTURES  AND  MODELS  29 

bleached  photograph.  In  either  case  the  resulting  picture  will 
be  fairly  correct  both  in  treatment  and  in  texture. 

Photographs,  when  they  can  be  obtained,  are  undoubtedly 
the  best  guides,  because  of  their  fidelity  to  even  the  minutest 
details.  They  are  somewhat  expensive,  it  is  true ;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  they  are  usually  not  so  difficult  to  obtain  as  the  less 
expensive  wood-cuts  and  photogravures.  It  is  best  to  purchase 
photographs  unmounted. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  mount  all  pictures  on  stout  card-board, 
taking  care  to  have  the  pieces  uniform  in  size.  In  mounting, 
first  trim  the  picture  to  the  proper  size  j  lay  it  for  a  few  moments, 
face  up,  in  a  basin  of  water ;  when  fully  expanded,  remove  the 
superfluous  water  with  blotting-paper;  apply  a  good  quality  of 
mucilage,  and  set  evenly  on  the  card-board.  If  not  mounted  on 
card-board,  photographs  should  be  attached  by  their  corners  to 
the  leaves  of  the  scrap-book ;  under  no  circumstances  should 
they  be  kept  rolled.  Card-board  mountings  are  in  every  way 
preferable  to  scrap-books,  owing  to  the  facility  with  which  they 
can  be  handled  and  exhibited.  Should  it  be  necessary  to  remove 
the  picture  from  the  card,  soak  the  latter  —  it  is  not  necessary  to 
wet  the  picture  —  for  some  hours  until  it  is  thoroughly  softened  : 
the  picture  may  then  be  removed  without  injury. 

It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  merely  exhibiting  a  picture  is  not 
teaching  geography.  To  be  of  material  use,  the  picture  must  be 
used  as  an  object  lesson,  and  the  specific  features  of  the  type  which 
it  illustrates  should  be  deduced  by  close  and  careful  questioning. 

The  picture  has  some  points  of  superiority  over  the  model,  but 
it  also  is  not  without  demerits.  It  is  lifelike  and  attractive ;  it 
appeals  strongly  to  the  imagination  \  and  each  particular  scene  or 
landscape  has  a  harmony  and  an  environment,  giving  what  artists 
call  effect,  and  adding  no  little  to  its  teaching  value.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  lack  of  the  third  'dimension  is  a  defect  which  neither 
color  nor  effect  can  overcome.  Even  the  stereoscopic  view  gives 
an  impression  which  is  tantalizing  because  of  its  unrealness ;  and, 
moreover,  the  subject  can  be  viewed  from  but  one  point. 


30  HINTS    TO    TEACHERS 

The  Moulding-Board.  —  In  order  to  supplement  these 
defects,  the  moulding-board  has  within  a  few  years  become  a 
very  important  auxiliary  to  the  art  of  the  school- room.  This 
piece  of  apparatus  is  essentially  a  shallow  box  four  feet  by  three, 
and  about  two  inches  in  depth.  It  is  most  conveniently  attached 
to  a  table  thirty  inches  high,  in  such  a  manner  that  it  may  be 
inclined  at  any  angle.  A  zinc-lined  box  or  drawer  for  holding  the 
sand  may  be  fastened  to  the  under  side  of  the  table.  Moulders' 
sand,  such  as  is  used  in  iron-foundries,  is  the  best  for  the  purpose, 
but  any  clean  sand  will  answer.  Moulders'  sand  is  naturally  more 
or  less  cohesive :  white  sand  needs  to  be  dampened.  Under  all 
circumstances  the  sand  should  be  closely  covered  when  not  in  use, 
and  should  be  sifted  as  occasion  demands. 

The  moulding-board  is  primarily  for  the  use  of  the  teacher.  It 
bears  the  same  relation  to  the  study  of  solid  forms  that  the  black- 
board does  to  the  study  of  outlines  and  surfaces.  In  order  to  be 
effective,  the  work  must  be  skilfully  and  quickly  done.  Moreover, 
it  requires  practice  and  careful  preparation.  No  instructor  can 
hope  to  reproduce  a  form  on  the  moulding-board  without  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  structure  and  features  which  the  par- 
ticular form  typifies  j  nor  can  one  expect  to  reproduce  the  form 
without  practice.  Without  a  knowledge  of  the  subject  to  be 
studied,  any  attempt  by  the  teacher  at  illustration  will  not  only 
be  barren  of  good  results,  but  will  be  positively  baneful  to  the 
pupils.  It  is  very  evident  that  to  be  of  positive  advantage  the  les- 
son of  the  teacher  must  be  reproduced  by  the  child.  A  thorough 
comprehension  of  relief  can  be  acquired  only  by  the  study  of 
relief-forms,  guided  by  the  sense  of  touch  j  at  the  same  time  one 
is  never  too  old  or  too  wise  to  dispense  wholly  with  the  third 
dimension.  Concerning  the  value  of  the  solid  form,  as  exempli- 
fied in  models  of  the  continents,  perhaps  the  best-known  living 
scientist1  writes  to  the  author,  'Your  relief-maps  have  given  me 
a  clearer  conception  of  the  relation  of  mountains  to  the  continents 

1  Professor  John  Tyndall. 


PICTURES  AND  MODELS  31 

whereon  they  lie  than  I  had  previously  possessed.'  If  this  be  the 
experience  of  a  scholar  trained  for  years  to  the  keenest  use  of 
the  perceptive  faculties,  it  certainly  deserves  emphasis  in  training 
the  faculties  of  the  child. 

With  very  young  pupils,  the  use  of  the  moulding-board'  requires 
the  best  judgment  and  the  utmost  care  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 
To  attempt  a  systematic  course  such  as  is  suggested  in  the  fore- 
going list  of  types  would  not  only  be  unwise,  but  could  have  no 
other  result  than  failure.  Only  the  simpler  forms  of  district  relief 
can  be  safely  undertaken  —  the  hills,  valleys,  ravines,  and  water- 
courses. Furthermore,  these  should  not  be  taught  so  much  for 
the  things  themselves,  as  to  prepare  the  pupil  for  what  is  to  be  stud- 
ied in  the  future.  The  pond  is  a  type  of  the  large  lake,  or  even  of 
the  ocean.  The  brook  is  the  miniature  river.  Any  long  ridge  of 
land  will  furnish  an  object  lesson  from  which  to  study  the  moun- 
tain-range. As  is  suggested  in  the  preceding  chapter,  the  study 
of  the  form  as  it  occurs  in  nature  should  be  followed  by  its  repro- 
duction by  the  pupil.  For  this  purpose  the  desk  moulding-board 
introduced  by  Professor  Frye  some  years  ago  will  be  found  of 
excellent  service.  It  is  essentially  a  shallow  pan  made  of  tin  or 
thin  sheet  iron  about  twenty  by  fourteen  inches  in  area,  with  a 
rim  about  half  an  inch  in  height. 

It  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  moulding-board  is  intended 
for  the  repetition  of  forms  that  actually  occur  in  nature,  and  not 
for  the  creation  of  those  which  may  have  a  fleeting  existence  in 
the  imagination.  Moreover,  so  far  as  primary  work  is  concerned 
it  is  easy  to  carry  the  work  of  moulding  beyond  the  limit  of  use- 
fulness. At  first  the  pupil  repeats  a  form  found  in  nature,  not  so 
much  for  the  sake  of  the  form  itself,  but  mainly  to  acquire  closer 
habits  of  observation,  and  subsequently  to  train  the  imagination  to 
a  conception  of  the  forms  which  the  great  majority  of  pupils  will 
see  in  pictures  only.  When  this  is  accomplished,  the  habitual  use 
of  the  moulding-board  is  no  longer  necessary ;  it  should  thereafter 
be  called  into  use  only  when  the  pupil  is  unable  to  form  a  true 
conception  without  it.     Just  as  there  will  be  occasional  demands 


32  HINTS   TO    TEACHERS 

for  the  use  of  the  black-board,  for  the  map,  or  for  any  piece  of 
school  apparatus,  so  also  the  moulding- board  will  now  and  then  be 
required.  It  may  be  casually  added  that  neither  expanse  of  mould- 
ing-board, quantity  of  sand,  nor  skill  in  manipulation  will  cover 
deficiency  in  knowledge  of  the  subject  taught,  or  carelessness  in 
preparation  of  the  daily  task.  The  moulding-board  is  only  a  tool, 
and  excellence  in  the  tool  does  not  necessarily  imply  competency 
on  the  part  of  the  artisan. 

The  first  lessons  that  are  likely  to  be  taken  up  in  connection 
with  the  moulding-board  are  elevations  of  land.  The  origin  of  the 
hill  either  by  accumulation  or  by  denudation,  as  explained  on  pp. 
10  and  ii,  may  be  understood  by  even  the  youngest  pupils.  An 
explanation  of  the  reason  for  the  rugged  crag  on  the  one  hand  and 
the  rounded  form  of  the  ordinary  hill  on  the  other  may  be  dis- 
cussed, —  with  older  pupils  it  should  not  under  any  circumstances 
be  omitted.  In  many  instances  it  will  be  necessary  to  resort  to 
the  picture  in  order  to  gain  a  conception  of  the  form  to  be 
moulded.  In  such  cases  the  picture  and  the  moulded  form 
should  be  exhibited  and  studied  together.  Indeed,  the  picture- 
studies  suggested  in  the  foregoing  pages  will  be  extremely  ser- 
viceable as  studies  for  the  moulding-board,  to  illustrate  types  in 
physical  geography.  In  the  study  of  the  hill,  do  not  fail  to  see 
that  the  terms  top,  or  summit,  base,  side,  slope,  etc.,  are  fully 
understood. 

The  consideration  of  the  mountain-range  will  probably  follow 
that  of  the  hill.  Do  not  permit  the  pupil  to  form  the  concep- 
tion that  the  mountain  is  nothing  more  than  a  high  hill.  Pli- 
cation or  ' wrinkling'  is  the  essential  feature  of  mountains,  and 
the  range,  not  the  peak,  is  the  unit  of  structure.  Isolated  peaks 
are  of  rare  occurrence,  and  in  most  instances  they  consist  of  the 
material  heaped  about  a  volcanic  vent.  Begin  with  the  range, 
and  teach  it  as  a  fold  or  wrinkle  in  the  earth's  crust, — not  as  a 
mass  of  earth  or  rock  heaped  up.  Do  not  permit  the  conception 
that  a  mountain-range  consists  of  a  number  of  peaks  ranged  in 
a  line.     In  all  cases   avoid  the  exaggeration  of  orographic   fea- 


PICTURES  AND  MODELS  33 

tures.  Do  not  construct  a  range  relatively  fifty  miles  high,  with 
slopes  of  sixty  or  seventy  degrees.  The  slope  rarely  exceeds 
thirty  degrees :  it  is  seldom  more  than  twelve.  In  the  study  of 
the  range  discuss  the  terms  crest  or  summit,  peak,  base,  canon, 
pass,  ridge,  etc.  Show  that  ridges  are  formed  by  the  wearing 
away  of  strata  lengthwise  along  the  range,  and  that  passes,  canons; 
and  water-gaps  result  from  erosion  and  corrasion  across  the  range. 
Develop,  also,  the  fact  that  the  peaks  of  a  range  are  the  higher 
parts  of  the  crest,  and  that  they  are  usually  formed  by  the  unequal 
erosion  of  the  latter. 

The  discussion  of  the  range  leads  to  the  study  of  the  system. 
The  system  comprises  all  the  wrinkles  or  earth-folds  which  be- 
long to  the  same  series.  Sometimes  the  folds  are  very  nearly 
parallel,  and  are  remarkable  for  their  regularity.  In  general, 
however,  there  is  *nuch  irregularity,  and  the  ranges  with  their 
spurs  extend  in  almost  every  direction.1  Recollect  that  an  indi- 
vidual range  rarely  extends  the  whole  length  of  the  system,  and 
that  the  spurs  and  cross-ranges  are  often  as  marked  as  the  prin- 
cipal ranges  themselves.  With  the  moulding  of  the  mountain- 
system  there  will  necessarily  arise  the  consideration  of  longi- 
tudinal valleys.  Longitudinal  valleys,  of  which  the  Cumberland, 
Shenandoah,  Willamette,  and  San  Joaquin-Sacramento  valleys  are 
examples,  are  usually  of  wonderful  fertility,  and,  because  of  their 
productiveness,  densely  populated.  The  soil  which  fills  them  has 
been  worn  by  rains  and  snows  from  the  adjacent  mountain-slopes, 
and  the  valley  has  been  levelled  off  by  the  action  of  running 
water.  The  mountains  themselves,  however,  because  of  their 
rugged  surfaces  and  extremes  of  climate,  are  remarkable  mainly 
for  their  infertility  and  their  sparseness  of  population. 

1  I  know  of  no  picture  that  is  a  good  illustration  either  of  the  range  or  of  the 
system.  Perhaps  the  best  are  those  found  in  the  relief-maps  of  Warren's  New 
Physical,  and  in  Swinton's,  Butler's,  and  Monteith's  descriptive  geographies. 
The  hachured  maps  drawn  by  Mr.  Russell  Hinman  for  the  Eclectic  Geographies 
will  be  found  excellent  guides  in  the  moulding  and  modelling  of  mountain- 
systems.     These  maps  are  contoured,  and  are  remarkably  accurate  in  the  dis- 


34  HINTS    TO    TEACHERS 

The  transverse  valley,  water-gap,  or  canon,  as  it  is  variously 
called,  will  probably  arrest  the  pupil's  attention  at  some  period 
or  other  in  his  work  at  the  moulding-board.  Why  a  river  rising 
on  one  side  of  a  mountain-system  should  traverse  half  a  dozen 
ranges  of  mountains  and  pour  its  flood  into  the  sea  on  the  opposite 
side,  will  be  apt  to  puzzle  even  the  most  thoughtful  pupil.  The 
explanation  in  such  cases  is  that  the  river  is  older  than  the  moun- 
tains, having  always  had  the  right  of  way  there  ;  and  when  the  up- 
lift of  the  system  took  place,  the  stream  carved  its  channel  through 
the  mountain-mass  in  just  the  same  manner  that  the  saw  cuts  its 
way  through  the  log  that  is  moved  against  it.1  The  Rocky,  Sierra 
Nevada,  Appalachian,  Andes,  and  Himalaya  Mountains  are  all 
pierced  by  streams  which  have  thus  cut  their  masses  in  twain. 
It  may  be  somewhat  difficult  for  pupils  to  grasp  this  conception 
at  first,  especially  when  the  ridiculous  notion  that  range-summits 
are  continental  divides  has  been  systematically  inculcated.  In 
the  construction  of  such  problems  on  the  moulding-board,  the 
difficulties  may  be  considerably  lessened  by  forming  the  general 
slope  first,  and  then  moulding  the  range  or  system  on  the  slope. 
This  method  of  procedure  must  not  be  considered  a  subterfuge 
to  enable  one  to  creep  out  of  a  difficulty :  it  is  in  a  similar  way 
that  nature  has  solved  the  problem. 

In  the  consideration  of  volcanoes,  it  may  be  well  to  impress 
the  fact  that  the  volcano  is  not  necessarily  a  mountain.  It  may 
be,  and  it  usually  is,  in  or  near  a  mountain-range,  or  it  may  be 
on  a  plain.  Even  when  it  occurs  in  a  mountain-range,  it  is  not  per 
se  a  part  of  the  range,  although  built  upon  it.  The  volcanic  peak 
is  commonly  called  a  'cinder-cone,'  and  it  is  composed  of  the  sub- 
position  of  topographical  features.  Mr.  Hinman's  system  of  hachures  is  an 
admirable  one  in  giving  character  to  mountains. — J.  W.  R. 

1  In  a  few  instances,  it  is  possible  that  the  head-waters  of  a  stream  rising 
in  an  abrupt  slope  may  have  carved  a  channel  backwards  until  it  has  reached 
the  opposite  slope,  even  tapping  and  diverting  the  tributaries  of  rivers  flowing 
in  an  opposite  direction.  This,  however,  could  hardly  have  been  the  case 
with  such  streams  as  the  Susquehanna  and  Green  Rivers. 


PICTURES  AND  MODELS  35 

stances  which,  thrown  out  of  the  volcano,  are  piled  around  it.  It 
will  be  an  excellent  plan  to  mould  the  volcanic  peak  with  its  crater 
and  monticules  on  an  enlarged  scale.  For  this  purpose  Vesuvius 
perhaps  is  the  best  type.  Several  text-books  of  geography  have 
illustrations  of  the  Vesuvian  eruption  of  1872,  reproduced  from 
instantaneous  photographs.  These  will  be  serviceable  in  showing 
the  proper  angular  slope  for  the  model  j  but  the  cuts  on  p.  88  of 
Le  Conte's  Geology  will  be  found  the  best  for  illustrating  the  gen- 
eral structure  of  the  peak,  as  these  show  the  broken-down  crater 
ramparts  of  former  eruptions.  A  photograph  of  the  crater  of  this 
volcano  !  will  be  an  excellent  guide  in  showing  the  texture  of  the 
crater,  with  its  lava-cones,  etc.  In  studying  the  volcano,  see  that 
the  pupils  understand  the  proper  application  of  such  terms  as 
'  crater,'  *  cinder-cone,'  'lava,'  'lava-cone,'  'rampart,' 'flow  of  lava,' 
'  eruption,'  '  extinct,'  '  active,'  etc.  Impress  the  fact  that  the  real 
volcano  is  the  channel  opening  from  the  reservoir  of  heated  or 
molten  matter,  and  that  the  mountain  itself,  which  is  commonly 
called  the  volcano,  is  composed  of  the  materials  ejected.  In  dis- 
cussing volcanoes  keen  judgment  must  be  used  in  order  to  avoid 
going  beyond  the  comprehension  of  younger  pupils.  With  young 
pupils  the  pardonable  expedient  of  igniting  at  the  crater  of  the 
moulded  form  an  ounce  or  two  of  strontium  or  Bengal  fire  may 
possibly  make  the  lesson  more  impressive. 

Other  hints  concerning  the  nature  of  volcanoes  will  be  found  in 
Part  II.  of  this  book.  After  discussing  their  nature  and  structure, 
the  distribution  of  volcanoes  should  be  closely  studied.  When 
an  extensive  region,  as  a  grand  division,  is  to  be  moulded,  it  will 
be  difficult  to  make  any  distinction  between  volcanic  and  other 
peaks. 

In  the  study  of  coast- forms,  land  and  water  are  necessarily  to 
be  studied  together.  Unfortunately,  the  elevations  of  coast  de- 
scribed on  p.  24  cannot  be  well  reproduced  in  sand :  it  requires 
a  finely  executed  clay  model  to  show  the  details  properly.     The 

1  From  •  The  Moon.'     Nasmyth  and  Carpenter. 


36  HINTS    TO    TEACHERS 

low,  sandy  coast  with  its  bordering  wave-formed  islands  may  be 
readily  shown,  and  between  picture,  moulding-board,  and  imagina- 
tion, the  other  vertical  forms  may  be  studied. 

Horizontal  forms  of  coast  may  be  readily  reproduced  on  the 
moulding-board.  If  there  are  no  natural  forms  to  study,  the  pic- 
ture scrap-book  may  be  called  upon  to  furnish  models.  As  has 
been  suggested  on  a  previous  page,  the  horizontal  forms  of  coast 
may  be  represented  in  either  of  the  three  vertical  types.  Pupils 
who  have  been  taught  the  conventionalities  of  maps  may  pursue 
the  investigation  of  coast-forms  still  further.  An  inspection  of 
any  good  map  will  show  that  a  peninsula  is  frequently  a  range  of 
mountains  extending  a  considerable  distance  out  into  the  sea,  as, 
for  instance,  Italy,  Aliaska,  and  Malacca.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
isthmus.  Still  better,  the  pupils  may  be  led  to  observe  that  such 
chains  of  islands  as  occur  in  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  along  the 
eastern  coast  of  Asia,  consist  of  the  higher  summits  of  partly  sub- 
merged mountain-ranges.  The  various  forms  of  littoral  waters 
will  scarcely  fail  to  obtrude  themselves  upon  the  pupil's  notice. 
With  younger  pupils  it  will  not  be  wise  to  attempt  the  finely  drawn 
distinctions  between  gulf  and  bay,  or  inland  sea  and  lake.  A 
small  fragment  of  glass,  or,  better  still,  a  mirror,  makes  a  very  tak- 
ing device  whereby  to  illustrate  inland  lakes.  The  surface  of  the 
mirror  represents  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  the  sand  may  be 
modelled  about  it  to  represent  the  shore.  In  case  it  is  desirable 
to  show  an  enlarged  representation  of  a  lake,  the  bottom  of  the 
latter  may  be  first  modelled  to  the  proper  form  and  depth.  A 
sheet  of  glass  placed  upon  the  model  will  represent  the  surface  of 
the  water,  and  the  sand  may  then  be  worked  on  the  upper  surface 
of  the  glass  so  as  to  represent  the  shore-line  and  the  unfilled  part 
of  the  basin. 

The  moulding-board  is  hardly  suitable  for  the  reproduction  of 
the  various  types  of  inequalities  of  land  produced  by  erosion  and 
corrasion.  Such  forms  are  imperfectly  reproduced  at  best  by 
clay  models,  except  when  the  latter  are  on  an  inconveniently  large 
scale ;  even  then  the  finer  details  of  photography  are  necessary  to 


PICTURES  AND  MODELS  37 

study  them  closely.  The  moulding-board  is  to  the  finished  model 
or  relief  what  the  off-hand  sketch-map  is  to  the  finely  engraved 
reproduction.  In  general,  a  relief  surface  that  can  be  made  in 
three  minutes  is  the  problem  for  the  teacher  to  solve,  and  this  can 
be  done  more  readily  by  sand  on  the  moulding- table  than  in  any 
other  way.  Working  with  clay  is  too  slow  for  the  needs  of  class 
illustration,  and  the  clay  once  dry  must  go  through  the  tedious 
process  of  '  tempering '  before  it  can  again  be  used.  The  same 
objections  will  apply  to  putty,  papier- mach^,  and  similar  sub- 
stances. 

For  use  in  class  demonstration,  general  form  and  not  finish  of 
detail  is  required,  and  the  substance  used  must  be  clean,  quickly 
manipulated,  and  always  ready.  The  sand  used  by  iron- moulders 
possesses  all  these  qualities,  and  for  easy,  rapid  work,  nothing  has 
yet  been  found  that  surpasses  it. 

For  pupils'  work,  circumstances  and  occasions  must  govern  the 
plans  of  the  teacher.  Usually  the  latter  must  compromise  between 
what  she  wants  and  what  she  can  get ;  and  instances  are  not  few 
where  a  teacher  has  purchased  at  personal  expense,  out  of  a  starv- 
ation salary,  materials  that  an  over-conscientious  board  of  direc- 
tors has  refused  to  provide.  Where  they  can  be  procured,  the 
modelling-pans  recommended  by  Professor  Frye  will  be  of  good 
service.  Wet  papier-mache  is  another  excellent  substance,  and 
when  it  is  available,  the  pupils'  slates  may  be  used  as  base-boards. 
Moreover,  the  reliefs  when  dry  are  stout  and  cohesive  enough  to 
bear  rough  handling.  The  pulp  may  be  procured  in  almost  any 
quantity  from  the  paper  mills.  A  fair  substitute  may  be  made  by 
soaking  old  newspaper  for  several  days  and  then  '  shredding '  until 
it  is  reduced  to  pulp. 

The  teacher  of  the  country  district  school  has  undoubtedly  the 
best  facilities  for  sand-modelling,  and,  as  the  younger  pupils  are 
usually  permitted  to  be  out  of  doors  when  not  at  recitation,  there 
are  abundant  opportunities  for  work  of  this  character.  They  will 
need  but  little  encouragement  to  reproduce  a  miniature  relief  of 
all  the  little  world  that  environs  them.     Hills,  valleys,  streams,  and 


38  HINTS    TO    TEACHERS 

forests  will  take  shape ;  and  roads,  farms,  and  miniature  fences 
will  give  rise  to  ideas  from  which  the  first  ideas  of  political  geog- 
raphy may  be  deduced. 

Clay-Modelling.  —  Modelling  in  clay1  or  other  similar  plastic 
substance  has  become  a  recognized  factor  and  part  of  modern 
school-work.  The  average  individual  possesses  hands  as  well  as 
brain.  Moreover,  it  is  conceded  that  while  the  brain  controls  and 
directs,  its  integral  existence  and  development  depend  in  no  small 
degree  on  the  skill  of  the  hands.  Singularly,  however,  there  are 
many  educators  who  are  aghast  at  the  idea  of  the  co-education 
of  the  hands  and  the  brain.  It  is  not  the  proper  place,  within 
these  pages,  to  discuss  the  merits  and  demerits  of  manual  train- 
ing. The  stereotyped  objection  that  the  public  schools  are  not 
the  place  for  teaching  trades,  is  an  objection  easily  disposed  of. 
In  the  school,  the  training  of  the  hands  is  not  for  the  purpose  of 
fitting  an  individual  to  be  a  servant  of  another,  but  to  make  him 
the  master  of  himself.  The  object  of  clay-modelling  in  school- 
work  is  not  to  make  sculptors,  but  to  train  pupils  to  habits  of  close 
observation  in  form  and  details  of  structure ;  and  inasmuch  as 
these  are  intimately  connected  with  the  science  of  geography,  a 
limited  amount  of  training  in  work  of  this  character  will  amply 
repay  for  the  time  devoted  to  it. 

For  all  ordinary  purposes  clay  is  perhaps  preferable  for  model- 
ling to  any  other  material.  Usually,  the  clay  purchased  for  this 
purpose  is  ready  for  use  after  a  slight  moistening.  The  '  temper- 
ing '  of  the  clay,  upon  which  its  quality  largely  depends,  is  pro- 
duced by  permitting  it  to  remain  covered  with  water  for  a  day 
or  more.  By  this  treatment,  dry  clay  which  has  not  been  baked 
will  become  cohesive.  Modelled  articles  that  are  not  to  be  pre- 
served may  be  thus  tempered,  and  the  clay  used  a  second  time. 
In  tempering  clay  do  not  stir  or  mix  it  —  on  the  contrary,  it  should 

1  An  extensive  series  of  topographical  models*  classifying  the  various  types 
of  earth-sculpture,  will  be  shortly  published  by  the  Prang  Educational  Co. 
These  models  and  relief-maps  will  consist  of  a  reproduction  of  such  forms, 
the  knowledge  of  which  largely  makes  the  science  of  physical  geography. 


PICTURES  AND  MODELS  39 

be  '  wedged '  or  made  as  compact  as  possible.  After  tempering, 
pour  off  the  water  and  allow  the  clay  to  dry  somewhat  on  the  sur- 
face. It  may  then  be  kneaded,  and  wrapped  in  wet  cloths  until 
used.  It  should  not  be  too  soft  to  retain  its  form  when  worked 
into  shape,  nor  should  it  be  so  hard  that  it  cannot  be  readily 
manipulated.  A  small  ball  held  between  the  thumb  and  ringer 
should  yield  readily  without  adhering  to  the  hand. 

All  natural  clays,  however,  are  sticky,  and  it  is  best  and  cheap- 
est in  the  long  run  to  purchase  prepared  modelling  clay,  a  mixture 
of  tempered  clay  and  sand.  This  preparation  is  sufficiently  cohe- 
sive without  being  sticky,  and  it  is  not  liable  to  crack  and  seam. 

Putty  is  sometimes  used  in  modelling.  It  is  easy  to  manipulate 
and  does  not  harden  so  quickly  as  clay.  It  has  the  disadvantage 
of  being  oily,  and  does  not  take  so  fine  a  finish  as  clay.  It  will 
frequently  be  available  where  clay  cannot  be  procured,  and  for 
small  relief-maps  and  models  is  an  excellent  substitute. 

Papier-mache  has  already  been  mentioned.  Its  use  is  limited 
mainly  to  relief-maps.  It  does  not  take  a  sharp  impression,  nor 
can  it  be  worked  to  a  smooth,  hard  surface.  Where  an  impres- 
sion is  to  be  taken  from  a  metallic  mould,  a  mixture  of  papier- 
mach£  and  plaster  of  Paris  makes  an  excellent  cast.  The  latter 
does  not  need  to  be  very  thick,  and  it  is  much  lighter  and  stronger 
than  a  plaster  of  Paris  cast,  while  its  outlines  are  equally  sharp. 

The  ingenious  teacher  who  has  decided  to  undertake  model- 
ling for  supplementary  school-work  will  not  fail  to  find  some 
material  for  the  purpose.  In  carrying  out  a  course,  much  judg- 
ment must  be  used  as  to  the  when,  the  what,  and  the  how  much. 
The  modelling  of  geographical  forms  cannot  take  the  place  of  the 
study  of  geography;  it  can  only  supplement  it.  Sand-models 
and  relief-maps  will  not  cover  up  any  deficiency  in  knowledge 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  None  but  a  well-trained  teacher 
whose  knowledge  of  the  science  of  geography  extends  beyond 
the  text-book  can  do  thorough  work,  and  one  who  does  not 
possess  this  qualification  will  find  modelling  a  hindrance  rather 
than  a  help. 


40  ,  HINTS   TO    TEACHERS 

About  the  only  tools  required  are  a  thick  board  12X16  inches 
and  a  \  shaper.'  The  latter  may  be  a  very  narrow  druggist's 
spatula,  or  a  strip  of  flat  steel  T\  of  an  inch  wide,  with  one  end 
square  and  the  other  diagonally  cut.  An  old  case-knife  may  be 
ground  into  the  required  shape. 

With  younger  pupils  it  is  well  to  spend  some  little  time  in 
preliminary  work  before  attempting  difficult  geographical  forms. 
Modelling  fruit,  leaves,  the  various  forms  the  child  sees  in  na- 
ture, and  lastly  crystals  and  geometric  forms,  are  exercises  that 
will  of  necessity  suggest  themselves.1  At  first,  the  model  should 
be  made  with  the  natural  form  as  a  guide ;  after  a  little  experience 
it  maybe  repeated  from  memory.  Recollect,  also,  that  the  object 
should  be  moulded  into  general  shape  by  the  hands,  the  shaper 
being  used  only  in  finishing  those  details  which  cannot  be  readily 
accomplished  with  the  fingers.  Keep  in  mind  that  a  knowledge  of 
form,  dimension,  and  proportion  must  be  acquired  through  the 
senses  of  touch  and  sight.  Cutting  a  lump  of  clay  by  the  use  of  a 
straight-edge  and  an  inch  rule  is  not  modelling :  it  has  no  more 
disciplinary  effect  or  developmental  force  than  ingesting  plaster  of 
Paris  into  a  hollow  mould.  It  would  be  well  to  blindfold  the 
modeller  occasionally  and  thus  test  the  development  of  the  sense 
of  touch  unaided  by  that  of  sight.  Bear  in  mind,  also,  that  close 
observation,  and  correct  judgment  of  form,  constitute  the  end 
sought  in  work  of  this  kind.  The  pupil  who  studies  modelling 
and  sculpture  as  an  art  will  find  the  course  of  instruction  in  a 
technical  school  more  advantageous  for  his  purpose. 

In  the  practical  manipulation  of  the  clay  it  is  well  to  bear  in 
mind  that  modelling  is  a  somewhat  broader  art  than  sculpture. 
In  many  instances  it  will  be  necessary  to  model  a  study  in  sepa- 
rate parts  and  then  arrange  the  latter  in  their  proper  positions. 
In  topographical  modelling  this  is  especially  essential.  Topo- 
graphical features  cannot  be  easily  sculptured  from  a  flat  surface 

1  Thompson's  Manual  Training,  Part  II.,  D.  C.  Heath  &°  Co.,  will  be 
found  an  excellent  guide  to  the  modelling  of  geometrical  forms,  decorative 
work,  etc. 


PICTURES  AND  MODELS  41 

of  clay  as  a  base.  It  is  true  that  this  is  mainly  nature's  method  of 
making  topography,  but  it  is  equally  true  that  the  modeller  will 
economize  time  by  adopting  the  plan  of  building  up  the  details, 
putting  bits  of  clay  here  and  there  and  working  them  to  the  proper 
form  with  the  finger  and  the  shaper. 

In  modelling  forms  in  clay  the  same  directions  should  be  observed 
as  have  been  mentioned  in  speaking  of  sand-modelling.  The  clay 
model,  however,  requires  more  skill  and  finer  finish  of  details. 
It  will  be  necessary  to  work  directly  from  the  copy,  and  it  will 
often  be  more  convenient  to  work  from  a  picture,  photograph,  or 
reduced  model,  than  from  nature.  Usually  work  of  this  kind  can- 
not be  done  in  school  hours,  nor  at  the  school-building.  More- 
over, although  a  most  excellent  discipline  to  the  pupil,  it  is  not 
essential  to  his  progress  in  the  study  of  geography.  The  comple- 
tion of  an  artistically  finished  model  may  require  all  the  spare 
time  for  several  days,  but  if  the  time  can  be  spared,  the  end  will 
justify  the  means.  Accuracy  to  nature  is,  of  course,  the  first  aim  ; 
artistic  effect,  the  second.  The  former  is  a  testimonial  to  the 
knowledge  and  energy  of  the  pupil ;  the  latter  will  be  a  source  of 
delight  to  all  who  may  see  the  finished  work.  But  whether  or  not 
time  can  be  spent  in  clay-modelling  by  the  pupils,  it  may  be  safely 
asserted  that  the  teacher  should  be  able  to  do  work  of  this  kind 
skilfully  and  understandingly.  No  other  study  in  the  curriculum 
of  common  school-work  is  being  so  completely  revolutionized  and 
modernized  as  that  of  geography ;  and  a  few  years  hence  ability 
to  model  geographical  forms  will  be  to  the  teacher,  not  an  ac- 
complishment, but  an  essential  —  a  question,  not  of  may,  but  of 
must.  Throughout  the  whole  course  in  modelling,  faithfulness  to 
nature  is  the  one  thing  to  be  kept  in  view.  A  model  untrue  in 
this  respect,  no  matter  how  artistic  it  may  be,  is  worthless  as  a 
means  of  mental  discipline.  Reproduction,  and  not  creation, 
should  be  the  watchword.  The  model  is  the  expression  of  form 
as  it  occurs  in  nature,  and  when  the  form  and  the  reasons  there- 
for are  indelibly  photographed  upon  the  mind,  the  model  and 
the  moulding-board  may  be  put  aside. 


42  HINTS   TO    TEACHERS 

Relief -Maps.  — The  relief-map  is  the  outgrowth  of  the  mould- 
ing-board. It  is  designed  to  illustrate  what  cannot  possibly  be 
shown  on  a  flat  surface.  It  naturally  precedes  the  printed  map 
for  the  same  reason  that  we  must  study  the  physical  geography  of 
a  region  before  we  can  properly  comprehend  its  political,  social, 
and  industrial  features.  But  the  relief-map  and  the  political  map 
are  the  complements  of  each  other  j  each  displays  features  that 
cannot  be  well  shown  on  the  other.  The  black  outlines  of  the 
political  map  give  no  conception  of  sandy  shores  or  wave-beaten 
cliffs ;  the  clumsy  hachure-lines,  especially  those  appearing  on 
cheaply  prepared  maps,  are  equally  inefficient  in  depicting  topog- 
raphy. On  the  other  hand,  the  relief-map,  whether  a  stereo- 
graphic  model  or  a  photogravure  thereof,  is  useless  in  showing 
political  divisions  or  the  grouping  of  population,  and  unless  it  is  a 
large  and  highly  finished  model  it  shows  drainage  very  imperfectly. 
At  the  best,  it  shows  little  else  besides  topography ;  but  even  with 
respect  to  climate,  population,  life,  and  natural  resources,  it  may 
be  far  more  valuable  than  the  flat  political  maps.  So  far  as  it  is 
useful,  there  is  no  other  device  that  can  be  substituted  for  it ;  but 
the  success  in  this  branch  of  science  of  a  teacher  whose  resources 
in  geography  consist  only  of  a  method  and  a  moulding-board  will 
not  be  brilliant. 

When  the  pupil  has  become  acquainted  with  the  more  common 
forms  of  relief,  it  will  be  well  to  undertake  the  construction,  in 
sand,  of  a  relief-map  of  the  district,  or  of  some  other  area  whose 
topography  is  well  known.  Usually  this  will  be  a  rather  more 
difficult  task  than  it  seems  at  first.  It  is  not  so  easy  a  matter  to 
group  a  number  of  different  forms,  even  though  roughly  moulded, 
as  it  is  to  reproduce  a  single  one  minutely.  In  order  to  arrange 
the  topographical  features  in  their  relative  positions,  it  will  be  well 
first  to  construct  a  rough  outline  map  of  the  district,  indicating 
the  positions  of  the  various  features.  Then  fix  a  number  of  pins, 
pegs,  or  similar  devices  as  guide-marks  to  indicate  the  relative 
altitudes.  The  surface  features  may  then  be  moulded  to  corre- 
spond to  these. 


PICTURES  AND  MODELS  43 

The  quickly  prepared  relief,  moulded  in  sand,  should  always  be 
used  by  the  teacher  to  illustrate  the  general  topography  and 
physiography  of  a  country,  region,  or  grand  division.  It  should 
always  be  moulded  in  the  presence  of  the  class,  and  each  feature 
discussed,  pro  and  con,  as  it  is  formed.  There  should  be  no 
attempt  to  show  minute  details  —  nothing  but  general  and  essen- 
tial features  :  everything  beyond  this  leads  to  confusion  rather 
than  to  clearness. 

But  the  finished  relief-map  is  quite  another  thing.  It  should 
depict  topography  as  truthfully  as  knowledge  of  the  region  will 
permit.  The  making  of  such  a  model,  though  not  an  essential 
part  of  the  pupil's  course,  is  nevertheless  an  accomplishment  that 
the  teacher  should  be  master  of,  and  the  use  to  which  it  is  put 
must  depend  on  his  judgment  and  common  sense. 

The  making  of  such  a  map  is  a  work  requiring  much  labor  and 
time ;  and  if  a  finely  finished,  attractive  model  is  desired,  the 
modeller  must  possess  not  only  good  judgment  and  knowledge 
but  skill  and  artistic  taste  as  well.  .To  such  of  the  more  advanced 
pupils  as  show  aptitude  in  this  work,  the  discipline  and  skill 
acquired  in  the  construction  of  a  relief-map  will  more  than  repay 
the  expenditure  of  time  and  labor.  The  following  directions  will 
enable  one  to  plan  the  work;  the  successful  execution  will  de- 
pend on  the  skill,  perseverance,  and  artistic  taste  of  the  modeller. 

Let  us  suppose  a  relief-map  of  the  United  States  is  to  be  con- 
structed. Draw  an  outline  map  of  the  United  States  on  very  thick 
paper,  of  such  dimensions  that  the  width  east  and  west  shall  be 
about  three  feet.  Enter  with  pencil  line  the  position  and  trend  of 
all  the  principal  highlands,  mountain- ranges,  and  divides.  Pro- 
cure from  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  a  copy  of  Gannet's 
Dictionary  of  Altitudes,  and  pencil  upon  the  map  at  equal  or 
nearly  equal  distances  the  altitudes  of  the  various  localities. 
These  bench  marks  may  be  about  an  inch  and  a  half  or  two 
inches  apart  in  the  open  plain  regions,  but  will  be  necessarily 
closer  in  the  highland  regions.  The  map  thus  prepared  is  used 
as  a  memorandum  for  the  relief  work. 


44  HINTS   TO    TEACHERS 

The  base  of  the  map  should  be  made  of  i^-inch  boards 
matched  closely  and  securely  cleated  on  the  under  side  to  pre- 
vent warping.  Lay  the  map  on  the  surface  of  a  large  vessel  of 
water,  or  else  sponge  the  under  side  of  the  paper  until  the  latter 
is  thoroughly  saturated,  having  previously  cut  away  every  part  of 
the  paper  outside  of  the  outline.  When  the  paper  is  saturated, 
remove  it  from  the  water,  place  it  face  downwards  on  a  large 
sheet  of  blotting-paper,  and  give  it  a  coating  of  mucilage  or  book- 
binder's paste.  The  surface  of  the  board  should  be  dampened, 
or,  what  is  better,  should  receive  a  coating  of  paste  on  that  part 
which  will  be  covered  by  the  map.  Next,  transfer  the  map  to 
the  board.  Be  careful  that  no  air-bubbles  are  left  between  the 
paper  and  the  board,  and  use  the  utmost  care  that  no  part  of  the 
paper  is  pulled  out  of  shape.  After  transferring,  place  the  board 
face  down  on  a  sheet  of  paper  and  allow  it  to  dry  for  a  day 
or  two. 

The  next  part  of  the  process  is  to  fix  guiding  pins  for  the  alti- 
tudes. On  a  relief-map  of  the  horizontal  scale  adopted,  20,000 
feet  to  the  inch  will  be  found  convenient  for  the  vertical  scale. 
Procure  a  paper  of  small  pins,  and  set  a  pin  vertically  at  each 
bench  mark,  the  length  of  the  pin  above  the  surface  being  meas- 
ured so  as  to  represent  the  proportionate  height  of  the  surface. 
The  clay,  wet  just  enough  to  be  cohesive,  may  then  be  worked 
upon  the  map,  building  it  up  to  the  level  of  the  tops  of  the  pins. 
Run  narrow  cylindrical  rolls  of  clay  along  the  mountain-ranges. 
Force  them  into  shape  with  the  fingers  first,  and  work  the  ridges 
into  shape  with  the  shaper.  Make  the  crests  notched  and  irreg- 
ular, and  score  the  sides  so  as  to  break  the  regularity  of  the 
slopes.  The  weather-worn  summits  of  the  highlands  are  difficult 
of  reproduction,  but  the  views  of  Western  scenery  published  by 
the  various  trans-continental  railway  companies  will  be  of  great 
service  in  suggesting  the  topographical  features. 

When  the  modelling  is  at  last  completed  and  the  model  is  dry, 
there  remain  only  the  coloring  and  the  finishing  details  of  chart- 
ing the  watercourses,  etc.     If  the  color  of  the  clay  is  not  a  pure 


PICTURES  AND  MODELS  45 

white,  it  may  be  modified  by  carefully  dusting  finely  ground 
plaster  of  Paris  over  the  surface,  any  excess  of  material  being 
blown  off  with  a  pair  of  small  hand-bellows.  The  rivers  may  be 
most  conveniently  put  in  with  a  fine  brush,  using  cobalt  or  ultra- 
marine blue  ground  in  oil.  That  part  of  the  board  which  repre- 
sents the  sea-level  should  be  sized,  dusted  with  plaster  of  Paris, 
and,  when  dry,  also  colored  blue. 

Whenever  contour  maps  can  be  procured,  the  work  of  model- 
ling is  made  much  easier.  The  contour  lines  being  lines  of  equal 
elevation,  it  greatly  reduces  the  work  of  establishing  bench  marks, 
and  does  away  with  the  use  of  pins  to  mark  altitudes.  Sheets  of 
pasteboard  of  uniform  thickness  are  procured,  each  thickness 
of  the  board  representing  a  certain  number  of  feet.  If  the  con- 
tours are  200  feet  apart,  the  thickness  of  the  pasteboard  will  repre- 
sent a  relief  of  200  feet.  The  contour  lines  are  first  traced  on 
thin  paper,  and  afterwards  transferred  to  the  pasteboard.  The 
latter  is  cut  along  the  line,  and,  beginning  with  the  lowest  altitude, 
the  contours  are  fastened  to  the  base-board.  The  successive  ele- 
vations are  built  on  this  step  by  step,  as  the  contour  lines  follow 
one  another,  until  the  work  is  finished.  The  clay  may  now  be 
moulded  over  this  form,  and  finished  as  before.  This  method 
was  followed  by  Mr.  Cosmos  Mindeleff,  who  made  a  series  of 
models  for  the  author  a  few  years  since.  It  is  by  far  the  most 
satisfactory  way  whenever  a  contour  map  can  be  procured. 

'The  filling-in  process,'  says  Mr.  Mindeleff,  'is  the  most  im- 
portant one  in  relief-map  making  j  for  it  is  here  that  the  model- 
ler must  show  his  knowledge  of,  and  feeling  for,  topographical 
forms.  Some  models  seem  to  have  been  constructed  with  the 
idea  that  when  the  contours  have  been  placed,  the  work  of  the 
modeller  is  practically  done.  This  is  a  great  mistake.  The 
card-board  contours  are  only  a  means  of  control,  occupying  some- 
what the  same  relation  to  the  relief-map  that  a  core  or  base  of 
bricks  or  a  frame  of  wood  does  to  other  constructions,  as,  for 
example,  an  architectural  ornament  or  a  bust.  It  is  sometimes 
necessary  to  cut  away  the  contour  card ;  for,  as  has  already  been 


46  HINTS    TO    TEACHERS 

explained,  a  map  is  more  or  less  generalized,  and  a  contour  is  fre- 
quently carried  across  a  ravine  instead  of  following  it  up  as  it 
would  do  if  the  map  were  on  a  larger  scale.  Such  generalizing  is 
of  course  perfectly  proper  in  a  map,  but,  with  the  same  scale,  we 
must  expect  more  detail  in  a  model.  The  modeller  must  have 
judgment  enough  and  skill  enough  to  read  between  the  lines  and 
to  undo  the  generalizing  of  the  topographer  and  draughtsman, 
thus  supplying  the  material  omitted  from  the  map.  This  can  be 
done  without  materially  affecting  the  accuracy  of  the  model,  con- 
sidered even  as  a  copy  of  the  contoured  map.'  l 

In  every  case  the  vertical  scale  should  be  exaggerated  as  little 
as  possible.  If  the  area  to  be  modelled  is  a  country,  or  even  a 
state,  there  need  be  no  exaggeration  whatever,  or  at  the  most 
it  need  not  exceed  3:1.  In  the  case  of  a  grand  division,  the 
vertical  scale  may  be  raised  as  high  as  10:  1.  Mr.  Mindeleff's 
model  of  Europe,  one  of  the  finest  works  of  the  kind  extant,  has 
a  scale  of  only  5:1.  In  a  relief-map  of  a  large  area  some 
vertical  exaggeration  is  absolutely  necessary,  but  to  raise  the  scale 
to  -i 00  :  1  or  500  :  i,  as  is  often  done  in  profiles  and  cheap  relief- 
maps,  is  a  gross  abuse,  for  which  there  is  no  cause  whatever. 
The  relief-map  is  intended  as  a  reproduction,  not  a  caricature,  of 
nature,  and  it  is  questionable  whether  one  is  justified  in  attempting 
to  teach  truth  by  the  agency  of  a  grave  error. 

1  From  a  lecture  delivered  before  the  National  Geographical  Society,  Wash- 
ington, D.C. 


MAP-DRAWING  AND   MAP-MAKING  47 


IV. 

MAP-DRAWING   AND   MAP-MAKING. 

Whenever  we  wish  to  learn  the  position  of  a  place  of  which  we 
know  but  little,  the  first  impulse  is  always  to  consult  the  map. 
This  we  do,  because  in  long  years  of  time  we  have  learned  the 
true  use  of  the  map.  The  map  not  only  tells  us  the  position  of 
the  particular  locality  on  the  earth's  surface,  but  also  its  position 
with  relation  to  other  places.  In  early  life  we  seek  the  picture  of 
the  thing  if  we  cannot  have  access  to  the  thing  itself ;  in  many  in- 
stances the  picture  is  often  more  graphic  than  the  thing  —  because 
it  enables  the  mind  to  view  a  wider  horizon.  Thus,  even  in  mature 
years,  one  can  get  a  better  idea  of  a  city  or  a  large  area  of  country 
by  consulting  a  '  bird's-eye  view '  than  by  travelling  over  the  extent 
of  country,  or  by  wandering  through  the  streets  of  the  city. 

Now,  in  the  study  of  geography  it  is  necessary  to  construct  views 
which  shall  enable  the  eye  to  take  in  as  much  as  half,  or  even  the 
whole,  of  the  earth's  surface  at  once.  This  representation  is  the 
map.  The  map,  of  necessity,  is  not  a  picture.  We  cannot  delin- 
eate as  pictures  any  except  very  small  areas,  and  have  them  true 
to  nature.  So  we  are  forced  to  represent  nature  by  the  use  of 
very  arbitrary  lines  from  which  we  are  supposed  to  reproduce  the 
object  itself  in  the  mind's  eye.  In  other  words,  we  make  what 
we  call  a  map  to  reproduce  a  mental  image  of  the  thing  itself. 

The  most  vigorous  imagination,  however,  cannot  see  any  resem- 
blance between  a  round  dot  and  a  cluster  of  houses,  or  between 
the  hachure  lines  of  the  map  and  a  range  of  mountains.  There 
may  be  a  slight  resemblance  in  the  sinuous  black  line  which  serves 
to  recall  the  actual  river,  but  there  is  nothing  in  the  shore-line  of 
the  maps  to  recall  the  low  sandy  beach  or  the  wave-beaten  cliffs 


48  HINTS    TO    TEACHERS 

that  frown  upon  the  sea.  There  is  even  less  in  the  gaudily  painted 
colors  of  the  map  to  suggest  the  beautiful  landscapes  of  nature. 
But  the  map,  notwithstanding  its  innate  ugliness  and  convention- 
alities, has  a  practical  side  to  it  which  makes  it  intrinsically  more 
valuable  than  all  the  picture-lessons  we  can  possibly  derive  from 
nature,  for  without  it  foreign  commerce  would  be  almost  an  impos- 
sibility, and  domestic  commerce  would  be  greatly  crippled. 

It  goes  without  saying,  that  before  the  child  sees  or  studies  the 
map  he  should  become  acquainted  with  the  things  which  the  con- 
ventional lines  on  the  map  represent.  The  various  forms  and 
elevations  of  the  earth's  surface,  such  as  mountains,  islands,  capes, 
bays,  peninsulas,  straits,  etc.,  should  be  studied  first  from  nature. 
Where  this  is  not  possible  the  moulding-board  and  the  picture 
furnish  the  next  best  means.  Simultaneously  with  these,  the  con- 
ventional outline  may  be  drawn  on  the  slate  or  on  the  blackboard, 
and  thus  the  pupil  takes  his  first  lessons  in  map-drawing. 

In  the  class-room,  perhaps  the  most  practical  map-drawing  is 
the  hasty  off-hand  sketching  of  an  area  which  the  needs  of  the 
recitation  demand.  In  such  sketch-map  only  a  general  accuracy 
of  outline  is  required,  and  not  more  than  two  or  three  minutes 
should  be  permitted  in  making  it.  If  the  pupil  has  been  habitually 
trained  to  such  work  in  the  oral  lessons  on  the  moulding-board, 
there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  doing  it  quickly  and  with  reasonable 
accuracy.  The  ability  to  make  a  rough  sketch-map  of  a  given 
area  consistently  and  rapidly  implies  a  great  deal.  It  shows  not 
only  that  the  pupil  has  the  outline  photographed  in  his  mind,  but 
it  is  also  proof  positive  of  a  kind  of  knowledge  that  is  not  readily 
forgotten.  Beyond  the  disciplinary  value  of  such  work  the  out- 
line itself  is  more  valuable  in  its  way  than  the  wall-  or  the  atlas- 
map.  A  few  lines  drawn  in  their  proper  places  will  show  the 
continental  divides  which  separate  the  great  slopes  and  basins. 
On  such  a  map  these  can  be  seen  more  clearly  than  on  the  atlas- 
map  because  there  is  no  confusion  of  details  to  distract  the  atten- 
tion from  the  particular  features.  There  is  a  score  of  similar  uses 
to  which  such  a  sketch-map  may  be  put,  any  one  of  which  will 


MAP-DRAWING  AND  MAP-MAKING  49 

enable  both  teacher  and  pupil  to  do  graphically  and  vividly  what 
must  otherwise  be  imperfectly  done.  One  who  has  tried  this  ex- 
pedient will  not  fail  to  acknowledge  how  much  time  and  explana- 
tory talk  may  be  thereby  saved. 

The  production  of  finished  and  artistically  drawn  maps  is  an  art 
—  and  a  science  as  well  —  which  the  majority  of  teachers  look  on 
with  disfavor.  It  certainly  is  not  an  essential  element  in  the  edu- 
cation of  the  average  pupil,  and  if  such  work  is  done,  it  would  be 
better  if  done  mainly  out  of  school  hours.  But  whatever  may  be 
the  value  of  a  knowledge  of  chartography  to  the  pupil,  it  is  a  neces- 
sity to  the  teacher.  The  clumsy,  unskilful  devices  commonly  rec- 
ommended as  'aids  to  map-drawing,'  although  they  often  reflect 
credit  upon  the  ingenuity  of  the  teacher,  are  not  testimonials  to 
his  training  in  the  study  of  geography. 

Most  likely  the  majority  of  teachers  use  a  conventional  system 
of  construction-lines  upon  which  the  outlines  of  the  land-area  are 
to  be  drawn.  This  system  sometimes,  though  rarely,  serves  a 
good  purpose,  and  where  a  map  is  to  be  hastily  sketched  it  is 
occasionally  convenient.  As  a  supplement  to  a  correct  system 
of  map-drawing  it  is  frequently  desirable.  But  if  the  pupil's 
knowledge  of  the  science  of  map-drawing  is  to  stop  at  this  point, 
it  would  be  better  that  the  knowledge  were  never  acquired ;  it  is 
always  misleading,  and  usually  erroneous.  The  object  and  essence 
of  the  map  is  that  every  geographical  point  should  be  in  its  proper 
place.  With  the  ordinary  construction- diagram  no  attempt  what- 
ever is  made  to  show  anything  but  an  outline  similar  to  the 
map  copied.  Neither  is  there  anything  to  show  the  latitude  and 
longitude  of  places,  or  even  the  general  position  of  the  area 
charted.  For  a  map  of  a  township,  or  even  a  county,  such  an 
outline  might  be  useful ;  but  for  a  large  area,  it  is  unscientific,  in- 
complete, and  erroneous. 

Now  and  then  some  one  discovers  that  a  construction-diagram 
which  answers  admirably  for,  we  will  say,  a  map  of  North  America 
as  it  appears  in  one  book,  will  not  answer  at  all  for  the  same  map 
as  it  is  given  in  another.     When  such  an    awkward  discovery  is 


50  HINTS    TO    TEACHERS 

made,  one  of  the  maps  (usually  the  one  to  which  the  construction- 
diagram  will  not  fit)  is  declared  incorrect. 

That  construction-lines  and  diagrams  are  a  necessity  in  map- 
drawing  is  certainly  true,  but  why  not  use  the  ones  originally 
designed  for  the  purpose,  and  without  which  a  map  is  useless  ?  In 
other  words,  why  not  use  the  parallels  and  meridians  themselves  ? 
They  were  devised  for  this  purpose  and,  except  in  mariners'  charts, 
have  little  or  no  other  use.  The  professional  map-draughtsman 
uses  them  and  does  not  ever  think  of  using  any  other  device. 

The  advantage  of  using  parallels  and  meridians  is  twofold.  It  is 
fully  as  easy  to  lay  them  off  on  paper  as  it  is  to  draw  a  meaning- 
less construction- diagram.  The  map  when  thus  drawn  is  con- 
sistent, and  expresses  not  only  position,  but  also  direction  and 
relative  distance.  Without  the  parallels  and  meridians,  it  shows 
nothing  but  outline  ;  and  if  the  outline  were  one  of  a  country  or 
a  region  not  well  known,  it  might  be  difficult  to  decide  how  the 
map  was  to  be  read,  or  in  which  direction  were  the  cardinal 
points. 

The  chief  difficulty  is  that  both  teacher  and  pupil  are  afraid  to 
attempt  drawing  the  parallels  and  meridians,  for  fear  that  they  will 
not  have  the  same  appearance  as  those  of  the  map  copied.  This 
fear  may  be  dismissed  with  the  assertion  that  they  need  not  be 
similar.  They  may  be  drawn  as  straight  lines  if  one  choqses  to 
draw  them  thus,  and  if  they  are  properly  numbered  the  map  may 
be  charted  upon  them.  The  result  will  be  a  consistent  map, 
although  in  shape  it  may  not  absolutely  resemble  the  one  copied. 

Pupils  and  teachers  have  been  taught,  or  have  imbibed  the  idea, 
that  a  map  must  of  necessity  be  an  exact  outline  of  the  continent, 
grand  division,  or  state.  This  is  a  matter  which  must  be  unlearned. 
A  map  cannot,  of  necessity,  be  an  exact  outline,  because  it  is  im- 
possible to  represent  the  outline  of  a  convex  or  rounded  surface 
on  a  flat  surface.  The  map-draughtsman  must  therefore  be  con- 
tent with  making  the  map  as  nearly  correct  as  circumstances  will 
permit,  and  must  lay  out  his  parallels  and  meridians  accordingly. 
The  platting  of  these  is  called  'projecting  .the  map.'     There  are 


MAP-DRAWING  AND  MAP-MAKING 


51 


ISO0 


L 


many  projections  used  in  map-drawing,  but  there  are  four  which 
are  very  commonly  used, — the  Mercator,  the  conic,  the  polyconic, 
and  the  globular  projection. 

The  Mercator  Projec- 
tion. —  This  projection  re- 
ceives its  name  from  Kauf- 
mann,1  a  geographer  who 
first  employed  it  in  the 
charting  of  sailing-routes. 

In  the  Mercator  projec- 
tion the  earth  is  considered 
a  cylinder,  on  the  convex 
surface  of  which  the  out- 
lines of  the  continents  are 
drawn.  If,  now,  we  con- 
ceive the  surface  to  be 
unrolled  and  laid  flat,  the 
/  result  is  a  map  projected 


±,:_ 


> 


on  the  Mercator  plan. 

But  the  north  pole  of  the 
earth,  which  in  reality  is  a 
point,  becomes,  in  the  Mer- 
cator projection,  a  circle 
equal  in  size  to  the  circle 
of  the  equator.  The  land 
masses  situated  in  high  lati- 
tudes appear  greatly  dis- 
torted, therefore,  in  width. 
In  order  to  obviate  this,  the 
distance  between  parallels 
constantly  increases  as  the 
latitude  increases,  as  will 
be  seen  in  the  accompanying  diagram.  These  distances  are 
not  taken  hap-hazard,  to  suit  convenience,  but  are  determined 

1  Kaufmann  is  the  German  word  for  merchant,  which  in  Latin  is  mercator.  0      g 


Method  by  which   Mercator  Charts  are  projected 


M- 


y^Jtr  itc  f*t*~  <£^*»^  f^Tf^- 


^ 


52  HINTS    TO    TEACHERS 

for  a  purpose,  and  their  positions  calculated  with  mathematical 
precision. 

Technically  speaking,  the  distance  of  each  parallel  from  the 
equator  is  equal  to  the  tangent  of  the  angle  of  latitude.  Let  us 
imagine  that  UXYZ  is  a  hollow  cylinder  of  paper  surrounding 
a  terrestrial  globe  PQR.  From  O,  the  centre  of  the  globe,  lay 
off  angles  of  io°,  200,  300,  etc.,  and  draw  lines  until  they  meet  the 
side  of  the  paper  cylinder.  Now  the  points  where  these  lines 
meet  the  surface  of  the  cylinder  will  be  the  distances  of  the 
respective  parallels  from  the  equator.  When  we  unroll  the  paper 
cylinder,  it  will  be  about  3^-  times  the  length  of  AB,  the  diameter 
of  the  globe.  For  all  practical  purposes  the  maps  projected  on 
the  Mercator  plan  are  limited  to  8o°  N.  and  6o°  S.  latitude,  as  the 
land  and  all  the  navigable  waters  of  the  earth  are  situated  between 
these  parallels. 

The  chief  objection  to  this  plan  of  projecting  a  map  is,  that 
where  large  areas  are  to  be  shown,  the  size  of  those  portions  situ- 
ated in  high  latitudes  is  greatly  exaggerated.  This  objection,  how- 
ever, fails  when  small  areas  are  to  be  charted,  and  for  state  and 
county  maps  it  is  an  excellent  projection.  It  is  the  only  conven- 
ient projection,  too,  in  which  the  entire  surface  of  the  earth  can 
be  shown  on  a  single,  continuous  map. 

Its  greatest  advantage  lies  in  its  use  as  a  sailing-chart ;  for  it  is  in 
maps  of  this  projection  only  that  alt  directions  are  measured  in 
straight  lines,  and  that  parallel  lines  have  the  same  direction  in  all 
parts  of  the  map.  Without  the  Mercator  chart,  deep-sea  sailing 
would  be  out  of  the  question,  for  any  navigator  who  was  not  a  good 
mathematician  could  not  calculate  the  complex  curves  which  on 
ordinary  maps  would  represent  straight  lines  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth.  The  '  commercial '  maps  of  the  world,  which  now  form  a 
part  of  most  common-school  geographies,  are  excellent  specimens 
of  the  Mercator  projection,  although  not  always  correctly  pro- 
jected. 

It  need  not  be  inferred  from  this  that  the  chartographer  does 
not  know  how  to  project  them.     The  reason  is,  that  a  correctly 


MAP-DRAWING  AND  MAP-MAKING  53 


projected  map,  to  include  all  the  surface  between  8o°  N.  to  8o°  S., 
if  a  two-page  map  is  required,  would  be  about  three  feet  in  length 
from  top  to  bottom.  So  it  is  customary  to  reduce  the  distance 
between  parallels  by  any  convenient  but  arbitrary  scale,  the  latter 
depending  upon  the  size  of  the  page. 

The  Conic  Projection.  —  The  conic  projection  represents  a 
part  of  the  earth  as  drawn  on  the  surface  of  a  cone.  Imagine  a 
cone  (or  a  part  of  the  cone)  covered  with  paper,  on  which  the 
parallels  are  drawn  parallel  to  the  base  of  the  cone,  and  the  merid- 
ians from  the  apex  to  the  base.  If  now  the  paper  be  removed 
and  spread  flat,  we  shall  have  a  tolerably  correct  idea  of  the  conic 
projection.  This  form  of  projection  and  the  various  modifications 
of  it  are  much  used  in  charting  those  grand  divisions  and  areas 
which  lie  in  the  northern  hemisphere.  Obviously,  the  distortion 
will  be  the  greatest  towards  polar  and  equatorial  latitudes.  If  we 
bend  the  paper  into  a  cone,  and  place  the  latter  over  a  globe 
which  shall  just  go  inside  of  it,  we  can  see  what  parts  of  the  map 
are  distorted  or  incorrect  in  outline.  Along  the  circle  where  the 
sphere  and  cone  touch,  there  will  be  no  distortion.  In  polar  lati- 
tudes there  will  be  a  north  and  south  exaggeration,  and  in  equa- 
torial latitudes,  an  east  and  west  enlargement.  Where  the  area  to 
be  charted  extends  well  into  equatorial  latitudes,  the  meridians  in- 
stead of  being  straight  lines  are  commonly  curved  inwardly  so  as  to 
prevent  too  much  lateral  distortion.  Maps  of  Asia  and  Europe  are 
usually  thus  conventionalized.  In  fact,  two  of  the  best  chartog- 
raphers  in  the  United  States  use  ship-curves  for  projecting  the 
meridians  in  the  maps  of  these  grand  divisions.  In  using  the 
ship-curve  instead  of  the  arc  of  a  circle,  their  judgment  is  good. 
In  a  projection  thus  made,  the  northern  regions,  where  there  are 
but  few  details  to  be  charted,  are  slightly  contracted,  while  the 
southern  parts,  in  which  the  details  are  numerous,  are  slightly 
enlarged.  The  parallels  of  a  conic  projection  are  always  concen- 
tric arcs  with  the  pole  as  a  centre.  The  conic  projection  is  one 
of  the  most  convenient,  and  in  many  respects  the  best,  for  pupils' 
work.     It  is  easily  made,  and  requires  no  apparatus  more  costly 


# 


5-4 


HINTS    TO    TEACHERS 


than  a  pair  of  dividers  with  a  long  leg.     The  meridians  may  be 
straight  lines,  and  the  parallels,  arcs  drawn  from  the  apex  of  the 


I 


A  Conic  Projection. 


cone  as  a  centre.     The  outline  on  p.  48  conveys  a  practical  idea 
of  this  form  of  projection. 

Bonne's  Projection. — This  projection,  which,  in  a  modified 
form,  is  known  also  as  Flamsteed1si  is  perhaps  more  extensively 
used  in  the  maps  of  school  geographies  than  any  other.  In  many 
respects  it  is  a  difficult  projection  to  construct,  although  the  diffi- 
culty may  be  practically  obviated  by  purchasing  the  meridian 
rules  already  made,  or  by  using  a  flexible  ruler.1  In  Bonne's  pro- 
jection the  parallels  are  equidistant  arcs  drawn  from  the  pole 
(or  apex  of  the  cone)  as  a  centre ;  in  Flamsteed's,  they  are 
straight  lines.    In  the  latter,  each  hemisphere  (northern  and  south- 

1  Both  the  meridians  and  the  flexible  ruler  may  be  purchased  of  Williams  & 
Brown,  or  of  the  Ball-Bennett  Co.,  Philadelphia. 


MAP-DRAWING  AND  MAP-MAKING  55 

ern)  is  assumed  to  have  a  shape  much  like  that  of  a  boy's  top, 
conical  at  the  apex,  but  rounding  off  to  a  nearly  hemispherical 
shape  at  the  base.  In  Bonne's  modification,  however,  the  cone 
is  slightly  concave  at  the  apex,  resembling  in  form  the  dome  of 
a  pagoda.  A  better  example  may  be  found  in  the  illustrated 
ace  of  spades  which  accompanies  each  pack  of  playing-cards,  the 
curves  of  this  figure  being  constructed  in  one  or  the  other  of  these 
projections.  The  chief  merit  about  these  projections  is  that  true 
proportion  of  areas  is  preserved.  The  disadvantages  are  distor- 
tion at  the  margin,  and  the  very  oblique  angle  at  which  the  paral- 
lels and  meridians  intersect  in  high  latitudes.  In  nearly  all  the 
school  geographies,  the  maps  of  the  grand  divisions,  and  often 
the  state  sections,  are  drawn  on  the  Bonne  or  the  Flamsteed  pro- 
jection. Europe,  Asia,  North  America  and  South  America  are 
generally  constructed  on  the  former ;  Africa  and  Australia  on  the 
latter. 

Globular  Projections.  —  The  maps  of  the  hemispheres  which 
are  found  at  the  beginning  of  most  geographies  are  drawn  on 
what  is  commonly  called  a  globular  projection.  One  of  these  was 
planned  by  De  la  Hire  about  two  hundred  years  ago,  and  a  better 
one  for  the  purpose  was  never  made.  Let  us  imagine  a  glass 
globe  on  which  the  parallels  and  meridians  have  been  drawn,  to 
be  cut  in  two  through  the  poles,  and  a  sheet  of  half- transparent 
paper  fastened  over  the  cut  edges.  In  the  accompanying  cut 
ABCDE  is  the  hemisphere,  and  ADCE  the  sheet  of  paper.  The 
observer  stands  directly  in  front  of  the  flat  side  at  a  distance  a 
little  greater  than  the  length  of  the  axis  of  the  sphere,  the  eye 
being  at  O,  on  the  level  of  the  equator.  Now  as  one  looks  at  the 
parallels1  with  the  eye  in  the  position  shown  at  O,  they  seem  to 
be  curved  lines ;  and  if  we  could  have  each  one  drawn  as  it  seems 
to  fall  on  the  flat  surface  ADCE,  we  should  have  a  set  of  parallels 
as  seen  in  the  next  figure.  The  meridians  are  usually  drawn  at 
equal  distances  apart.     The  expert  chartographer  does  not  need 

1  The  meridians  are  omitted  in  order  to  avoid  crowding  the  figure  with  a 
confusion  of  lines. 


56 


HINTS    TO    TEACHERS 


Method  by  which  Globular  Maps  are  projected. 

to  take  this  trouble  to  locate  the  position  or  to  find  the  curvature 
of  the  parallels ;  he  can  calculate  either  much  more  easily. 

In  a  projection  of  this  kind,  the  distortion  is  chiefly  at  the  mar- 
gin of  the  map.  On  a  globe  the  parallels  must  of  course  be  equi- 
distant, but  in  our  globular  projection  they  are  much  farther  apart 
at  the  margins  than  along  the  central  meridian.  Not  unfrequently 
the  question  arises,  '  Why  is  there  not  a  scale  of  miles  on  maps  of 
the  hemispheres  ? '  Such  a  question  is  readily  answered  when  we 
recognize  the  fact  of  this  marginal  exaggeration.  A  scale  of  miles 
which  would  be  accurate  on  the  central  meridian  would  be  very 
inaccurate  at  the  margin.  To  represent  a  fairly  correct  scale  each 
unit  must  be  1.57  as  great  for  the  marginal  as  for  the  central 
meridian. 

It  is  evident  that  directions  north  and  south,  or  east  and 
west,  are  measured  respectively  along  the  meridians  and  par- 
allels, no  matter  what  may  be  the  direction  of  these  lines  on 
the  map.  A  straight  line  on  the  map  must,  therefore,  in  nearly 
every  case  be  a  curved  line  on  the  globe ;  it  becomes  not  only 
a  great  inconvenience,  but  practically  an  impossibility  for  any  but 
an  expert  mathematician  to  use  such  maps  for  sailing-charts.     But 


MAP-DRAWING  AND  MAP-MAKING 


57 


inasmuch  as  a  map  projected  for  use  as  a  sailing-chart  has  such 
exaggerated  outlines  as  to  be  almost  worthless  for  everything  ex- 
cept rhumb  lines  and  accuracy  of  direction,  we  must  gracefully 
submit  to  the  fact  that  two  kinds  of  maps  are  necessary,  —  one  for 
landsmen,  and  the  other  for  seamen.  We  must  also  yield  to  the 
fact  that  while  both  are  consistent,  neither  one  is  accurate,  and 
that  a  perfect  map  cannot  be  made  until  we  have  a  flat  earth. 

One  of  the  difficulties  in  trying  to  fit  a  round  earth  to  a  flat 
map  is  frequently  encountered  in  the  United  States  Land  Office. 


EQUATOR 


90      SO 

The  Completed   Projection. 


According  to  law  a  township  must  be  bounded  east  and  west  by 
meridians,  and  must  be  six  miles  square.  Now  this  is  simply  an 
impossibility.  If,  for  instance,  we  survey  two  township  lines  north- 
ward from  the  40th  to  the  41st  parallel,  we  shall  find  that  they 
have  approached  each  other  and  are  about  two -thirds  of  a  mile 
nearer  at  their  northern  than  at  their  southern  limits.  In  the  sys- 
tem of  land  surveys  adopted  by  the  United  States,  standard  par- 
allels are  surveyed  every  few  miles  apart,  and  these  are  taken  as 


58 


HINTS    TO    TEACHERS 


bases  for  new  township  surveys.      The  parallel  taken  for  a  new 
base  is  called  a  '  correction  line.' 

Various  other  globular  projections  are  occasionally  employed, 
most  of  which,  like  the  one  just  described,  are  perspective  draw- 
ings rather  than  true  projections,  inasmuch  as  they  depend  mainly 
upon  the  position  of  the  observer's  eye. 


A  Polar  Projection. 


The  Orthographic  Projection 1  is  one  in  which  the  eye  is  supposed 
to  be  at  an  infinite  distance  from  the  hemisphere,  and  the  plane 

1  Any  true  perspective  view  of  a  globe,  the  eye  being  situated  at  a  distance, 
will  be  an  orthographic  projection. 


MAP-DRAWING  AND  MAP-MAKING  59 

of  the  projection  perpendicular  to  the  line  of  vision.  The  meri- 
dians, which  are  at  normal  distance  apart  at  the  centre  of  the 
map,  are  gradually  crowded  together  at  the  edges.  The  parallels 
are  straight  lines,  but  unequally  distant.  Briefly  stated,  this  is  the 
form  the  lines  of  a  globe  would  naturally  take  if  the  observer 
were  to  stand,  say,  five  hundred  feet  from  the  globe,  with  the  eye 
in  the  plane  of  the  equator  extended.  The  maps  of  the  hemi- 
spheres in  Warren's  Geographies  are  drawn  on  this  projection. 
An  illustration  in  which  the  projection  is  made  on  the  plane  of 
a  meridian  is  here  given.     (See  also  p.  76.) 

The  Stereographic  Projection  differs  from  the  foregoing  mainly  in 
the  position  of  the  eye  of  the  observer,  which,  instead  of  being  at 
an  infinite  distance,  is  on  the  surface  of  the  sphere,  at  the  pole  of 
a  great  circle.  The  maps  of  the  hemispheres  in  the  author's 
Complete  and  Elementary  Geographies  are  on  this  projection.  It 
makes  a  handsome  map,  but,  though  a  very  easy  one  to  lay  off,  it 
is  rarely  used.  If,  however,  the  eye  of  the  observer  be  shifted  to 
the  centre  of  the  sphere,  the  resulting  projection  becomes  Gno- 
monic,  and,  if  the  plane  of  the  projection  is  tangent  to  a  pole  of 
the  sphere,  it  does  not  differ  greatly  from  any  other  polar  projec- 
tion. A  good  example  of  this  projection  may  be  seen  in  the  cut 
facing  p.  60.  Here  the  earth  is  projected  on  a  cube  tangent  to 
the  sphere  about  which  it  is  circumscribed.  It  will  be  hardly 
necessary  to  add  that  the  meridians  of  a  gnomonic  projection  will 
always  be  straight  lines.  This  projection  is  nearly  always  used  in 
star  charts  and  celestial  maps. 

A  very  ingeniously  constructed  globular  projection  is  shown  on 
p.  58.  Here  the  eye  of  the  observer  is  at  a  slight  distance  above 
the  north  pole,  and  the  largest  continuous  circle  is  the  equator. 
If  folded  back,  the  rays  of  the  star  would  meet  at  the  south  pole. 
This  is  a  convenient  projection  for  showing  the  distribution  of  land 
and  water,  and  is  a  device  much  used  by  Mr.  Russell  Hinman. 

Babinet's  Equal-surface  Projection.  —  This  projection,  as 
its  name  implies,  is  so  called  because  the  surface  bounded  by  any 
given  lines  has  an  area  equal  to  the  surface  bounded  by  the  same 


60 


HINTS   TO    TEACHERS 


lines  on  the  sphere.  The  meridians  are  equidistant ;  the  parallels 
are  plotted  so  as  to  preserve  the  proportionality  of  areas  as  above 
described.  The  projection  readily  admits  being  extended  so  as  to 
embrace  the  whole  surface  of  the  sphere,  the  bounding  line  then 
becoming  an  ellipse.  It  is  an  excellent  substitute  for  the  Mer- 
cator  projection  in  showing  the  distribution  of  physical  features, 
but  it  is  a  difficult  one  to  make.  Mr.  Russell  Hinman  has  shown 
a  very  excellent  example  on  p.  13  of  the  Eclectic  Geography. 
This  projection  is,  perhaps,  best  known  as  a  homalographic 
projection.     (See  p.  78.) 


A  Pofyconic  Projection. 


Polyconic  Projection.  —  This  projection  was  probably  con- 
ceived by  F.  R.  Hassler,  the  first  Superintendent  of  the  U.  S. 
Coast  Survey.  It  conceives  the  earth  to  have  a  shape  like  that 
of  a  cone  whose  slant  height  is  a  convex  instead  of  a  straight 
line,  —  in  other  words,  like  that  of  the  old-time  sugar-loaf  or  bee- 
hive.    Technically  it  employs  a  tangent  cone  for  the  development 


MAP-DRA  WING   AND  MAP-MAKING  61 

of  every  parallel,  and  this  is  its  chief  distinction  when  compared 
with  the  simple  conic  projection,  where  only  one  cone  is  em- 
ployed. But  in  the  conic  projection  the  map  is  accurate  only 
where  the  sphere  touches  the  circumscribed  cone,  whereas  in  the 
polycone  the  map  is  accurate  along  each  parallel,  and  distorted 
only  between  them.  The  parallels  are  arcs  of  circles  drawn  from 
different  centres,  each  centre  receding  from  the  pole  of  the 
sphere  until,  at  the  equator,  the  radius  is  infinitely  long,  and  the 
equator  becomes  a  straight  line.  In  the  delineation  of  small 
areas  this  is  decidedly  the  most  accurate  of  all  projections,  but 
in  very  large  areas  there  is  considerable  distortion  at  the  east  and 
west  margins,  especially  in  high  latitudes.  A  very  meritorious 
feature  is  that  the  meridians  cut  the  parallels  practically  at  right 
angles.  The  proportionality  of  areas  is  not  exactly  preserved, 
and  in  a  map,  say,  of  Eurasia,  the  area  bounded  by  lines  of  equal 
angular  distance  is  about  i  \  times  as  great  at  the  margin  as  at  the 
centre,  along  the  same  parallel.  The  polyconic  projection  is  not 
a  very  difficult  one  to  lay  off;  it  is  certainly  not  beyond  the  com- 
prehension of  any  one  possessing  a  fair  knowledge  of  geometry. 
The  curves  of  the  meridians  are  scarcely  more  difficult  to  draw 
than  arcs  of  a  circle,  in  which  respect  the  projection  differs  mate- 
rially from  most  of  the  others.  Excellent  illustrations  of  this  pro- 
jection may  be  found  in  Appleton's  Geography,  map  of  Asia.  It  is 
also  used  for  the  maps  of  Asia  and  North  America  in  the  author's 
Complete  Geography.     (See  p.  79.) 

Occasionally  the  cry  is  raised  that  the  maps  of  our  geographies 
are  objectionable  because  they  contain  too  many  details.  Cer- 
tainly the  map  should  not  contain  so  much  matter  as  to  be  con- 
fusing, and  all  unnecessary  lines  and  schemes  are  a  source  of  evil 
rather  than  good.  It  is  true  that  not  every  indentation  of  coast 
can  be  accurately  shown,  but  it  is  equally  certain  that  the  char- 
acter of  the  coast  may  be  delineated ;  and  if  the  map  shows  no 
difference  between  the  coast-charting  of  Maine  and  Florida,  it  is 
not  a  true  map.  Mountains  can  be  shown  only  in  a  conventional 
way,  yet  the  character  of  highlands  and  canons  can  be  distinctively 


62  HINTS    TO    TEACHERS 

portrayed.  If  the  hachure  lines  representing  a  mountain  range, 
a  plateau,  a  line  of  cliffs,  and  a  canon  show  no  difference  in  texture, 
the  map  is  untrue.  It  is  a  mechanical  impossibility  to  enter  the 
names  of  cities  and  towns  on  a  map  of  a  section  of  states,  sys- 
tematically, and  in  ratio  to  the  population.  The  chartographer  can 
only  submit  to  what  he  cannot  help,  and  use  his  best  judgment. 
Now  and  then  some  one  blindly  proposes  to  introduce  the  names 
of  a  few  of  the  larger  cities  only  on  each  section  map.  Such  a 
scheme  is  not  only  unnecessary,  but  misleading.  It  is  unnecessary 
because  in  all  the  standard  text-books  of  geography  the  greater 
centres  of  population  are  designated  by  larger  type  or  by  special 
symbols.  It  is  misleading  because  it  is  untruthful.  There  is  no 
more  instructive  lesson  to  be  derived  from  the  ordinary  map  than 
that  shown  by  the  distribution  of  population  over  an  area  of  coun- 
try, and  the  wise  teacher  will  not  fail  to  recognize  this  feature. 
Aside  from  this,  the  text-book  map  has  a  very  important  use  as  a 
reference  map,  and  if  all  but  the  salient  features  are  removed,  the 
map  has  no  value  whatever  beyond  its  class-room  use. 

Where  maps  containing  only  essential  features  are  required  they 
would  best  be  drawn  by  the  pupils  themselves.  For  this  purpose 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  take  advantage  of  outline  maps  —  that  is,  maps 
which  have  already  been  projected.  The  details,  whether  physical, 
political,  or  historical,  may  then  be  filled  in  progressively,  using  a 
different  sheet  for  each  purpose.1  The  plan  of  '  editing  '  a  map 
will  be  found  an  invaluable  discipline  to  the  pupil.  Indeed,  it  is 
doubtful  if  a  better  plan  to  judge  graphically  of  the  pupil's  progress 
could  be  devised.  Thus,  an  outline  map  of  the  world  on  the  Mer- 
cator  projection  may  be  edited  to  illustrate  the  following :  — 

Drainage  of  river-systems. 

Contours  of  elevation  of  the  land  and  depth  of  the  sea. 

Magnetic  variation. 

1  The  progressive  outline  maps  sold  by  the  publishers  of  this  book  will  be 
found  excellent  for  this  purpose.  I  use  them  much  in  my  private  work,  saving 
from  a  few  hours  to  several  days'  time  for  each  map  edited.  —  J.  W.  R. 


MAP-DRAWING  AND  MAP-MAKING  63 

Ocean  currents. 

Cotidal  lines. 

Distribution  of  volcanoes. 

Distribution  of  rain-fall. 

Winds. 

Isothermal  zones  —  summer  and  winter,  each. 

Distribution  of  life  —  animal  and  vegetable. 

Commercial  routes  —  railway  and  marine. 

The  map  of  any  grand  division  or  other  specified  area  may  be 
treated  in  a  similar  manner.  That  a  pupil  should  be  taught  to 
project  and  draw  at  least  one  or  two  maps  will  certainly  be  admit- 
ted as  proper,  but  to  compel  him  to  draw  every  map  he  uses  is 
quite  another  thing.  It  is  a  needless  waste  of  time,  that  brings 
neither  additional  knowledge  nor  mental  discipline.  In  the  study 
of  history,  outline  maps  are  a  necessity,  and  no  amount  of  memo- 
rizing or  minute  description  answers  as  a  substitute. 

In  most  instances  the  ability  to  construct  the  strictly  technical 
projections  demands  a  knowledge  of  higher  mathematics  which 
the  average  pupil  does  not  possess.  In  their  construction  an 
inconveniently  large  drawing-board  and  an  expensive  beam-com- 
pass are  needed.  Moreover,  the  student  who  investigates  will  find 
that  the  projections  used  in  text-books  are  rarely  constructed 
according  to  exact  formulae ;  on  the  contrary,  they  are  commonly 
modified  arbitrarily  to  suit  the  size  and  proportions  of  the  paper 
on  which  the  maps  are  to  be  printed. 

The  following  projections  will  be  found  available  for  pupil's 
work.  That  of  Asia  is  a  conic,  and  that  of  North  America  a 
modified  conic  projection.  The  illustrations  given  do  not  differ 
from  the  strictly  mathematical  projections  to  any  greater  extent 
than  the  latter  differ  from  one  another.  The  only  apparatus  re- 
quired is  a  pair  of  dividers  with  a  long  arm,  a  ruler  or  graduated 
paper  scale,  and  a  well-pointed  lead-pencil. 

North  America.  —  Let  us  suppose  a  projection  for  a  map  of 
North  America  is  to  be  made.     First  of  all  we  must  find  its  posi- 


64 


HINTS   TO    TEACHERS 


o 


S  S/fIl\ 


y'    /  /  /  I  I  j   ;   i  \   \  \  \  \    %% 


North  America  —  a  Projection  of  Convergent  Meridians. 

There  is  a  slight,  but  intentional  longitudinal  distortion. 


MAP-DRAWING  AND  MAP-MAKING  65 

tion  on  the  earth.  An  inspection  of  a  globe  (or  map)  shows  that 
it  is  practically  included  between  parallels  8o°  and  io°  N.,  and 
meridians  200  and  1800  W.  (excepting  the  Aleutian  Islands). 
Almost  the  whole  of  its  area  may  be  included  in  a  rectangle 
having  the  proportions  6:5.  A  sheet  of  paper  14X12  will  be 
suitable  for  the  purpose,  but  the  lines  which  form  the  border  of 
the  map  need  not  be  drawn  until  the  projection  is  laid  off.  In 
projecting  a  grand  division  it  is  conventional  in  the  majority  of 
maps  to  lay  the  parallels  ten  and  the  meridians  fifteen  degrees 
apart. 

Secure  the  paper  to  the  board,  and  draw  the  line  OD  through 
the  centre  of  the  paper.  At  right  angles  to  this  line,  and  bisected 
by  it,  draw  a  line  about  one  inch  from  the  lower  margin  of  the 
paper ;  this  line  should  be  about  fifteen  inches  from  O,  the  apex  of 
the  cone  (practically  the  centre  of  a  circle).  On  this  line  as  a  base, 
lay  off  the  rectangle,  12  X  10,  which  shall  enclose  the  map.  Divide 
the  lower  twelve  inches  of  the  central  meridian  into  eight  equal 
parts  and  draw  the  parallels,  eight  in  number,  the  top  and  bottom 
of  the  rectangle  each  forming  a  parallel.  This  division  will  make 
the  parallels  ten  degrees  apart.  At  any  convenient  distance  from 
O,  draw  the  arc  AB.  This  arc  is  only  for  convenience  in  spacing 
off  the  distance  between  meridians,  and  should  be  erased  when  it 
has  served  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  drawn. 

In  the  sketch  on  the  opposite  page  there  are  seven  meridians 
on  each  side  of  the  central  meridian,  and  this  will  be  found  a  con- 
venient number,  though  a  greater  number  would  not  affect  the 
consistency  of  the  map.  This  will  be  obvious  when  we  consider 
that  the  cone  which  conventionally  represents  the  earth  may  have 
any  angle  of  apex.  The  central  meridian  will  have  a  longitude  of 
about  970.  The  meridians  should  be  numbered  so  as  to  have 
an  assumed  though  arbitrary  angular  distance  of  fifteen  degrees 
apart. 

In  many  of  the  school  atlases  the  meridians  are  ten  degrees 
apart,  every  even  tenth  being  drawn.  This  plan  will  be  no  more 
difficult  of  projection  than  the  foregoing.     In  this  case  it  will  be 


66 


HINTS    TO    TEACHERS 


MAP-DRAWING  AND  MAP-MAKING  67 

best  after  calculating  the  space  required  to  draw  the'  90th  and 
1  ooth  meridians  equidistant  from  OD.  In  general  it  is  most 
convenient  to  lay  off  the  parallels  and  meridians  to  correspond 
with  those  on  the  map  to  be  copied. 

When  the  projection  is  laid  off  in  pencil,  the  coast-outlines  may 
then  be  charted,  also  in  pencil.  Where  the  coast  is  greatly 
broken,  it  will  be  advisable  to  draw  parts  of  the  intermediate 
parallels  and  meridians  as  in  the  projection  given.  Indeed, 
where  great  accuracy  is  required,  the  chartographer  may  inter- 
polate parallels  and  meridians  for  every  even  degree,  or  possibly 
for  fractional  degrees. 

Establish  by  latitude  and  longitude  the  prominent  points  of  the 
grand  division,  such  as  Point  Barrow,  Alaska,  Cape  Mendocino, 
Yucatan,  Cape  Sable,  etc.,  and  then  fill  in  the  intermediate  parts 
of  the  coast.  Next  chart  the  islands,  lakes,  rivers,  mountains,  and 
political  features  in  the  order  mentioned. 

The  pupil  should  not  be  discouraged  if  his  outline  does  not 
exactly  correspond  in  form  to  that  in  his  atlas.  As  a  matter  of 
fact  it  should  not.  Accuracy  in  a  map  of  a  large  area  is  theoreti- 
cally an  impossibility,  but  consistency  is  attainable  ;  and  if  the 
pupil's  map  has  been  faithfully  charted,  it  will  not  differ  from  the 
true  mathematical  projections  any  more  than  the  latter  differ  from 
one  another.  Of  course  the  judgment  of  teacher  and  pupil  must 
determine  as  to  how  elaborate  such  a  map  may  be :  such  a  map 
as  is  planned  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs  may  be  drawn  in  five 
minutes  or  in  five  weeks,  —  just  as  circumstances  may  require.  If 
the  pupil  prefers,  a  projection  similar  to  that  of  Europe,  p.  66, 
may  be  employed  for  North  America. 

South  America.  —  For  this  grand  division  a  projection  similar 
to  that  of  Africa  will  be  found  suitable.  The  intersection  of  the 
20th  parallel  with  the  60th  meridian  is  about  the  geographical 
centre,  and  from  these  lines  as  bases  the  other  parallels  and 
meridians  may  be  spaced  off  ten  degrees  apart.  There  will  be  a 
slight  but  noticeable  distortion  in  the  southern  part.  If  the  dis- 
tance between   parallels  be  made  about  i-j-  times  that  between 


68 


HINTS    TO    TEACHERS 


Africa  —  Drawn  on  an  arbitrarily  modified  Mercator  Projection. 

In  this  projection  the  parallels  and  meridians  are  equidistant.     It  is  sometimes  called  the 
'  Projection  of  Equal  Squares.' 


MAP-DRAWING  AND  MAP-MAKING  69 

meridians,  the  lateral  distortion  will  be  less  apparent;  a  better 
plan,  however,  is  to  make  the  meridians  converge  towards  the 
south. 

Europe  and  Asia.  —  These  divisions  may  be  drawn  singly  or 
together.  In  either  case  an  unmodified  conic  projection  is  per- 
haps preferable.  If  they  are  projected  together,  about  all  of  this 
area  is  included  between  the  meridians  of  io°  W.  and  io°  E.,  and 
between  the  parallels  of  o°  and  8o°  N.  The  intersection  of  the 
40th  parallel  with  the  90th  meridian  is  practically  the  geograph- 
ical centre.  Notice  that  the  parallels  are  arcs  of  concentric 
circles.  If  the  size  of  the  map  is  to  be,  say,  9X12  inches,  the 
equator  should  be  drawn  with  a  radius  of  about  twelve  inches. 
From  the  centre  of  the  map  space  off  ten  (or  twelve)  meridians 
on  each  side  of  the  central  meridian,  and  four  parallels  on  each 
side  of  the  central  parallel.  Then  sketch  in  the  outlines  in  the 
order  as  directed  in  North  America.  When  a  hastily  drawn  map 
is  required,  the  alternate  parallels  and  meridians  may  be  omitted. 
If  a  sketch  of  Europe  only  is  required  to  be  drawn  on  the  black- 
board, the  parallels  may  be  drawn  as  straight  lines. 

Africa.  —  The  Mercator  projection  is  an  excellent  one  for 
Africa,  for,  on  account  of  its  position,  there  is  but  little  distortion. 
The  intersection  of  the  20th  meridian  with  the  equator  is  about 
the  geographical  centre.  Draw  meridians  and  parallels  for  every 
tenth  degree.  It  is  well  to  include  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and 
the  southern  shores  of  Europe,  and  also  Asia  Minor  and  the 
Arabian  coast.  Locate  the  prominent  coast-features  first,  and 
then  complete  the  outline. 

Oceania.  —  In  projecting  a  map  of  this  region,  the  draughts- 
man should  first  decide  on  how  much  is  to  be  shown.  A  large 
map  of  Australia  will  of  necessity  exclude  the  greater  part  of  the 
coral  island  groups ;  and  conversely,  a  map  which  shall  show  all 
the  groups  from  the  Sunda  to  the  Feejee  group  will  show  the 
Australian  continent  on  a  reduced  scale.  Use  the  Mercator  pro- 
jection, and  after  deciding  upon  the  extent  of  the  region  to  be 
shown,  proceed  as  directed  in  the  preceding  cases. 


70 


HINTS   TO    TEACHERS 


PROGRESSIVE  OUTLINE  MAPS.-Drawn  by  J.  C.  Thompson,  Providence.  R.  I.    Copyright  by  J.  C.  Thompson.  1686. 
l^tLZsrri-<r*y    GVVafis  Name  ,WOT4<n«^_t-^M^aKUafct_ 

North  America  —  an  'edited'  Progressive  Outline  Map. 


MAP-DRAWING  AND  MAP-MAKING  71 

The  United  States.  —  The  United  States  may  be  drawn  on  a 
true  conic  projection,  or  on  the  modified  form  like  that  of  North 
America.  A  Mercator  projection,  however,  will  not  show  an 
excessive  distortion.  If  the  conic  projection  be  employed,  it  is 
necessary  to  use  skill  in  preserving  an  approximately  constant 
value  to  the  scale  of  miles.  In  most  geographies  the  parallels 
and  meridians  are  each  five  degrees  apart.  But  while  the  value 
of  a  degree  of  longitude  is  very  nearly  60  miles  along  the  30th,  it 
is  less  than  45.5  miles  along  the  49th  parallel.  That  is,  the  con- 
vergence of  the  meridians  is  such  that  along  the  northern  boun- 
dary of  the  United  States  the  distance  between  meridians  is  only 
three-fourths  that  along  the  30th  parallel.  Moreover,  the  distance 
between  meridians  along  the  30th  parallel  is  only  five-sixths  that 
between  adjacent  parallels,  and  if  the  map  is  to  be  consistent,  this 
must  be  taken  into  account  in  the  projection.  It  is  true  that 
maps  are  sometimes  constructed  having  one  scale  for  latitudinal 
and  another  for  longitudinal  measurements,  but  such  maps  are 
rare,  and  when  employed  they  do  not  purport  to  be  anything 
more  than  what  they  really  are.  For  convenience  to  the  student 
a  table  has  been  prepared  (p.  82)  showing  the  value  of  a  degree 
of  longitude  at  each  degree  of  latitude.  A  brief  calculation  will 
show  the  relative  amount  of  convergence  of  the  meridians. 

State  and  Section  Maps.  —  Such  areas  are  conveniently 
charted  on  a  projection  similar  to  that  of  North  America,  but  if 
the  student  is  the  fortunate  possessor  of  a  beam-compass,  a  true 
conic  projection  will  be  better.  Calculate  the  position  of  the  area 
to  be  charted,  and  then  determine  the  scale  and  proportions  of 
the  map.  For  instance,  suppose  a  map  of  Colorado  is  to  be  pro- 
jected. First  determine  its  position  as  to  latitude  and  longitude. 
An  approximate  measurement  shows  that  its  proportions  are  about 
7:5.  This  will  be  useful  in  determining  the  dimensions  of  the 
paper,  allowing,  of  course,  for  an  untrimmed  margin  of  about  two 
inches,  and  about  half  as  much  for  the  bordering  states.  By 
reference  to  the  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  value  of  a  degree  of 
longitude  on  the  37th  parallel  is  about  55  miles,  and  on 'the  41st, 


72  HINTS   TO  TEACHERS 

about  52  miles.  This  will  give  a  proportion  of  about  12.1  inches 
for  the  northern  boundary  to  12.8  for  the  southern.  A  similar 
calculation  will  show  that  the  distance  between  adjacent  parallels 
is  about  1.3  times  that  between  the  meridians  along  the  southern 
boundary.  Once  fixing  these  proportions,  the  charting  of  rivers, 
county  boundaries,  etc.,  will  be  easy  to  accomplish. 

Every  pupil  should  learn  to  sketch  a  map  from  memory,  and 
such  a  sketch  placed  on  the  blackboard  should  not  take  more  than 
three  or  four  minutes'  time.  But  to  do  this  well  requires  instruc- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  teacher  as  well  as  practice  by  the  pupil. 
In  the  author's  experience  no  better  or  surer  method  of  accom- 
plishing this  can  be  devised  than  that  of  first  teaching  a  pupil  how 
to  project  a  map.  With  the  same  amount  of  practice  on  the  part 
of  the  pupil,  far  better  results  can  be  attained  in  rapid  off-hand 
sketching  than  by  the  use  of  the  usual  subterfuges. 

The  production  of  a  highly  finished  map  is  not  an  essential  part 
of  common  school  work.  The  teacher  of  geography,  however, 
should  be  master  of  the  situation,  and  the  time  that  may  be  devoted 
to  one  or  two  maps  of  this  character  will  repay  good  interest. 
Furthermore,  if  the  pupils  have  the  time  to  spare,  such  an  exer- 
cise will  not  be  barren  of  disciplinary  results.  It  will  inculcate  a 
desire  for  accuracy  in  detail,  skill  in  handling  the  pen,  and  neat- 
ness in  work.  The  pupil  may  either  make  his  own  projection  or 
use  an  outline  map.  In  either  case  it  will  be  best  to  temporarily 
interpolate  additional  parallels  and  meridians  quite  thickly.  All 
work  should  be  first  done  in  lead-pencil,  and  no  ink  should  touch 
the  map  until  the  colors  have  been  applied. 

In  the  application  of  the  colors  several  brushes  are  required,  one 
of  which  should  be  used  with  clear  water.  A  very  fine,  small 
brush  is  required  for  coast  work.  Four  or  five  colors  are  re- 
quired, —  black,  Indian  yellow,  blue,  and  pink. 

The  remaining  colors  are  best  made  by  mixing.  Pink  and  yel- 
low make  a  very  attractive  buff;  blue  and  yellow,  green  ;  blue  and 
pink,  the  draughtsman's  purple.  Carmine  will  be  required  only 
when  railway  lines  are  to  appear  on  the  map.     All  colors,  except 


MAP-DRAWING  AND  MAP-MAKING  73 

as  noted,  should  be  diluted  until  only  a  very  delicate  shade  appears 
on  the  paper  :  if  greater  strength  of  tone  is  required,  it  should  be 
obtained  by  successive  applications  of  the  color.  In  general, 
never  apply  a  color  until  the  surface  has  been  wet  with  clear  water  : 
by  observing  this  direction,  uniformity  of  shade  may  be  insured. 

First,  apply  the  blue,  which  conventionally  represents  the  water. 
The  color  strip  should  not  be  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
wide  :  half  that  width  will  be  better.  With  the  fine  brush  apply 
the  color  a  second  time  quite  close  to  the  coast-line,  being  careful 
to  keep  the  paper  wet  ahead  of  the  work.  In  the  same  manner 
color  the  various  political  and  other  boundaries.  The  black  work 
may  then  be  entered  in  India  ink,  and  last  of  all  the  mountains 
should  be  hachured.  For  this  purpose  brown  is  the  best :  a  good 
color  can  be  made  by  mixing  pink  and  yellow  of  full  strength. 
The  texture  of  hachure  lines  is  somewhat  difficult,  and  requires 
much  practice  before  it  can  be  well  done. 

The  lettering,  unless  well  done,  will  spoil  an  otherwise  artistically 
drawn  map.  Do  not  attempt  to  use  ordinary  Roman  letters. 
Unless  one  is  an  expert,  such  letters  always  look  bad.  Except 
where  it  is  impossible,  the  names  of  towns  should  always  be  in 
alignment  with  the  parallels.  Names  of  countries,  oceans,  etc., 
are  best  drawn  in  graceful  curves.  The  following  scheme  of 
typography  will  be  found  the  least  difficult,  though  not  the 
most  artistic  :  — 

COUNTRIES,.  OCEANS,  etc. 

Capitals 

Large  Cities 

Mountains 

Smaller  Bodies  of  Water 
Rivers 

Cities  and  Towns 

In  general,  it  is  best  to  distribute  the  name  of  an  area  across  its 
broadest  extent,  so  that  there  shall  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  territory 


74  HINTS   TO    TEACHERS 

included.  The  distribution  of  the  names  requires,  moreover,  judg' 
ment,  skill,  and  artistic  ability.  It  is  best  to  have  names  of  towns 
and  of  areas  that  are  regular  in  shape  conform  to  the  direction 
of  parallels.  Where  this  is  inexpedient,  the  name  should  be  laid 
off  on  a  graceful  curve.  Clean  the  map  first  with  india-rubber, 
and  then  with  moderately  fresh  bread-crumbs,  and,  last  of  all,  trim 
the  margin  to  within  about  one  inch  of  the  border.  The  map  is 
then  ready  for  inspection. 

The  maps  in  nearly  all  of  leading  geographies  have  been  pro- 
jected and  drawn  either  by  Mr.  Jacob  Wells  of  New  York,  or  by 
Mr.  W.  H.  Holmes  of  Philadelphia.  Both  of  these  gentlemen 
are  widely  known  as  geographers  as  well  as  trained  chartographers, 
and  if  their  maps  in  school  text-books  are  open  to  the  criticism  of 
inconsistency,  or  inartistic  appearance,  the  fault  rests,  not  with  the 
chartographer,  but  with  the  employer.  It  is  not  conducive  to  the 
personal  comfort  of  the  draughtsman  to  be  ordered  to  distort  a 
projection  in  order  to  fit  a  certain  size  of  paper,  or  to  sacrifice 
accuracy  in  order  to  harmonize  a  map  to  some  one's  pet  theory ; 
yet  this  has  been  deliberately  done  in  more  than  one  instance. 
The  charge  for  the  original  drawing  of  a  map,  such  as  appears  in 
the  recent  school  geographies,  varies  from  $75  to  $125  per  page, 
and,  considering  the  quality  of  the  work,  these  prices  are  not  un- 
reasonable. Publishers,  nowadays,  are  willing  to  pay  well  for 
first-class  work.  The  cost  for  engraving  such  maps  is  about  $200 
per  page.  Nearly  all  the  maps  in  school  geographies  are  engraved 
and  printed  by  Struthers  &  Co.,  New  York,  or  by  Matthews  & 
Northrup,  Buffalo.  In  most  instances  the  map  requires  six  print- 
ings, viz.,  black,  blue,  pink,  yellow,  brown  (for  the  mountains), 
and  carmine  (for  railway  lines).  All  other  colors  are  produced 
by  variously  combining  pink,  blue,  and  yellow  in  the  printing. 
It  is  no  more  than  justice  to  say  that  the  maps  of  American 
geographies  are  not  equalled  by  those  in  any  European  text- 
book. 

The  most  important  thing  about  a  map,  however,  is  the  ability 
to  read  it  correctly.     Perhaps  any  expression  of  doubt  concern- 


MAP-DRAWING  AND  MAP-MAKING  75 

ing  this  subject  will  provoke  a  smile  on  the  part  of  the  reader. 
Nevertheless  the  assertion  may  be  broadly  made,  that  no  one  can 
read  a  map  correctly  who  has  not  learned  to  project  it.  Let  any 
one  who  feels  inclined  to  smile  make  the  following  tests  —  upon 
himself. 

On  the  map  of  North  America,  draw  a  line  which  shall  repre- 
sent the  shortest  distance  between  Iceland  and  Bering  Strait.  On 
a  map  of  the  Western  Hemisphere  draw  a  similar  line  from  Cape 
Farewell,  Greenland,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon.  Trace  similar 
lines  on  a  globe,  and  notice  whether  or  not  the  lines  pass  through 
the  same  points. 

Is  a  straight  line  on  a  map  always  the  shortest  distance  between 
two  points  ? 

Does  a  line  drawn  towards  the  top  of  the  map  always  extend 
north  and  south?  On  the  map  of  a  hemisphere  can  you  draw 
two  short  parallel  lines,  one  of  which  shall  point  north  and  south, 
the  other  east  and  west  ? 

On  page  4  of  Swinton's  Geography  are  three  maps,  each  show- 
ing the  grand  division  of  North  America.  They  all  differ  in  shape, 
yet  each  is  accurately  drawn.     Explain  the  reason. 

On  a  state  map,  such  as  is  found  in  the  supplement  of  most 
school  geographies,  can  you  find  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  a 
place  to  within  three  minutes  of  arc  —  or  to  within  three  statute 
miles  of  its  proper  position?  The  map  contains  all  the  informa- 
tion necessary  to  locate  a  point  much  more  closely. 

If  you  superimpose  the  map  of  North  America  in  Swinton's 
Geography  upon  the  map  of  the  same  division  in  the  author's 
Complete  Geography,  you  will  find  that  nowhere  is  there  coinci- 
dence of  outline,  yet  both  maps  are  on  the  same  scale,  and  each 
is  strictly  correct.     Explain  why. 

Can  you  construct  a  scale  of  miles  for  any  ordinary  map  ?  The 
map  contains  all  the  information  necessary. 

Can  you  tell  the  meaning  of  the  following  ?  —  Nat.  scale  = 
1  :  633,600. 

Can  you  tell  by  inspecting  a  map  whether  it  is  possible  to  make 


76  HINTS   TO    TEACHERS 

a  scale  of  miles  that  shall  be  accurate  in  all  parts  of  the  map? 
The  map  will  show  this  at  a  glance. 

Can  you  tell  whether  the  parallels  and  meridians  are  so  drawn 
as  to  preserve  true  proportionate  distances,  or  whether  there  is 
distortion  in  any  part  of  the  map? 

Can  you  tell  the  direction  of  the  slope  of  the  land  by  an  inspec- 
tion of  the  map  ?     The  map  bears  the  information  on  its  face. 

Can  you  trace  the  summit  of  a  divide  that  separates  adjacent 
river-basins  ? 

On  a  map  of  a  grand  division,  can  you  draw  at  least  one  line 
that  shall  pass  through  all  places  having  the  same  level? 

Unless  the  student  of  geography  can  do  all  this,  —  and  a  great 
deal  more,  —  he  can  read  or  interpret  maps  very  imperfectly,  at 
the  best. 


TECHNICAL    CONSTRUCTION  OF  PROJECTIONS  77 


THE  TECHNICAL  CONSTRUCTION   OF   PROJECTIONS. 

The  teacher  or  pupil  who  wishes  to  undertake  the  construction 
of  any  of  the  mathematical  projections  described  will  find  the 
following  tables  and  formulae  necessary.  Generally  speaking,  the 
process,  aside  from  planning  the  size,  extent,  and  scale  of  the  map, 
is  wholly  mechanical,  and  after  a  little  practice  the  projection  may 
be  easily  and  quickly  laid  off.  Usually  the  draughtsman  must  choose 
between  true  proportion  of  area  with  distortion  of  outline,  and 
true  outline  with  distortion  of  area.  A  drawing-board,  draughting- 
instruments,  two  or  three  engineer's  paper  scales,  and  a  flexible  rule 
are  needed.    The  whole  need  not  cost  more  than  five  or  six  dollars. 

Mercator's  Projection.  —  In  the  solution  of  the  projection  on 


,y> 


page  51,  it  is  assumed  that  the  earth  is  a  sphere.     For  a  spheroid 
earth,  it  is  necessary  to  use  the  following  table.     The  length 
one  degree  at  the  equator,  60  minutes  of  arc,  is  taken  as  the  unit 
of  measurement.    The  distance  of  each  parallel  will  be  as  follows  : 


A 


10  . . 

599 

60  .  . 

•  45<#' 

20°.. 

1217' 

65°.  • 

.5158' 

30°.  • 

1877' 

7o°.  • 

•  5944' 

40°.  . 

2608' 

75°-. 

.  6948' 

50°.  . 

345  7' 

8o°.  . 

•  8352' 

of 

J 


cWi 


The  fact  that  either  formula  gives  a  projection  that  is  contracted 
in  the  part  where,  in  physical  maps,  the  details  are  most  numer- 
ous, is  a  very  great  objection.  The  teacher  or  pupil  therefore  who 
desires  a  more  convenient  map  for  such  purposes  may  use  the 
following  plan  :  Draw  the  meridians  one  hour  (15  degrees)  apart. 
Take  two-thirds  of  this  value  for  the  distance  to  the  10th  parallel, 


<~ 


c- 


78 


HINTS    TO    TEACHERS 


5\7S 


and  use  this  distance  as  a  unit.  Lay  off  the  20th  parallel  a  a 
distance  of  1.25,  the  30th  2.5,  the  40th  3.75,  the  50th  5.0,  units 
from  the  equator,  etc.  Of  course  such  a  projection  is  worthless 
for  sailing  purposes,  but  it  is  far  more  practical  for  a  map  showing 
the  distribution  of  physical  features. 

Projection  of  Convergent  Meridians. — A  moment's  inspec- 
tion will  show  that  the  column  of  '  Radii  for  Parallels,'  Table  I,  may 
be  used  to  find  the  common  point  at  which  the  meridians  will  inter- 
sect. Thus  the  line  OD,  page  -e^  will  be  325  units  in  length,  on 
the  supposition  that  the  map  extends  to  the  10th  parallel. 


An  Orthographic  Projection. 


The  Orthographic  Projection.  —  Draw  a  circle  of  the  size 
required.  Draw  the  equator,  and  at  right  angles  thereto,  the 
axis,  which  is  also  the  central  meridian.  On  the  supposition  that 
the  parallels  are  ten  degrees  apart,  divide  each  quadrant  into  nine 
equal  parts,  and  draw  the  parallels  through  these  points,  as  in  the 


MAP-DRAWING  AND  MAP-MAKING 


79 


cut  on  page  76.  (It  will  be  proper  to  say  here  that  one-half  of 
each  parallel,  that  is,  the  perpendicular  distance  from  the  end  of 
the  arc  to  the  central  meridian,  is  technically  the  cosine  of  the 
angle  of  latitude.  This  is  usually  expressed  as  cos  <£,  in  which  <f> 
may  be  any  given  latitude.)  On  the  equator,  on  each  side  of  the 
central  meridian,  lay  off  distances  equal  to  the  distance  from  the 
equator  to  the  successive  parallels.  Through  each  of  the  points 
thus  determined,  a  meridian  must  be  passed,  terminating  at  the 
poles.  Each  meridian  is  a  semi-ellipse  whose  major  axis  is  the 
central  meridian,  and  whose  minor  axis  is  the  distance  from 
the  central  meridian  to  the  point  through  which  the  meridian  is 
to  be  drawn.     Technically  the  minor  axis  equals  2  sin  <f>. 


A  Stereographic  Projection. 
The  divisions  of  AD  and  DB  show  the  points  through  which  the  meridians  are  to  be  drawn. 


The  Stereographic  Projection. — The  above  figure  will  illus- 
trate the  construction  of  this  projection.  AB  is  the  equator  of  a 
hemisphere.  Draw  any  circle  OED  tangent  to  AB  at  its  middle 
point,  and  divide  its  upper  semi-circumference  into  as  many  parts 
as  there  are  to  be  meridians.  From  O,  the  point  of  vision,  draw 
lines  through  these  points  until  they  cut  A,  B.  These  are  points 
through  which  the  meridians  pass.  To  construct  the  meridians, 
with  AB  as  a  diameter,  draw  the  circumference  of  the  circle  which 
bounds  the  hemisphere.     Draw  arcs  which  shall  pass  through  both 


80  HINTS    TO    TEACHERS 

poles  of  the  hemisphere,  and  each  through  its  proper  point  on  the 
equator.  The  centre  of  each  arc  is  most  quickly  found  by  trial. 
To  construct  the  parallels,  divide  the  arc  of  each  quadrant  into  as 
many  parts  as  there  are  parallels  required,  and  in  the  same  man- 
ner divide  the  central  meridian.  Draw  arcs  of  circles  with  a  radius 
of  such  length  that  each  arc  shall  cut  the  central  meridian  at  its 
proper  point,  and  meet  the  circumference  of  the  hemisphere  at 
corresponding  points. 

An  arbitrary,  but  very  serviceable  modification  of  this  projec- 
tion may  be  made  by  subdividing  the  equator  equally,  and  passing 
the  meridians  through  these  points.  This  modification  does  not 
differ  greatly  from  De  la  Hire's  projection. 

The  Babinet  Homolographic  Projection.  —  Lay  off  the  circle, 
equator,  and  central  meridian.  Then,  if  the  parallels  are  ten  de- 
grees apart,  beginning  at  the  pole,  divide  each  half  of  the  central 
meridian  in  the  proportion  of  if,  if,  if,  if,  if,  i|,  if,  if,  2.1 
Space  off,  say  20,  equal  distances  along  the  equator  for  the  merid- 
ians. Then  each  meridian  will  be  a  semi-ellipse  whose  major  axis 
is  the  central  meridian,  and  whose  minor  axis  is  the  distance  from 
the  central  meridian  to  the  one  to  be  projected. 

The  Conic  Projection.  —  In  laying  off  a  conic  projection  the 
chartographer  may  construct  one  in  which  the  cone  is  tangent  to 
the  sphere  at  the  middle  parallel  of  latitude,  but  it  is  better  on  the 
whole  to  conceive  that  the  cone  cuts  or  pares  off  a  part  of  the 
surface  of  the  sphere,  thereby  becoming  an  '  intersecting '  cone. 
This  is  done  practically  by  drawing  the  parallels  each  with  a  radius 
slightly  shorter  than  that  given,  but  spacing  off  the  longitudinal 
distances,  according  to  the  table.  For  instance  in  the  map  of 
Europe  if  we  assume  that  the  cone  is  tangent  at  the  50th  parallel, 
then  (Table  I.)  the  radius  for  drawing  the  parallels  is  48.08  units ; 
but  if  we  take  an  intersecting  cone  which  cuts  the  sphere  at  lat.  400, 

1  This  is  only  an  approximation.  The  following  formula  gives  the  exact  dis- 
tance. Let  <p  =  the  latitude  of  the  parallel  to  be  determined,  h  =  the  distance 
from  the  equator,  and  ir=  3.1416.     Then  sin  </>  =  -  (2/1  + sin  2a). 


MAP-DRAWING   AND  MAP-MAKING  81 

the  radius  is  68.3  units.  For  a  map  of  a  grand  division  it  is  well  to 
follow  the  scheme  laid  down  on  page  00,  but  in  projecting  the 
map  of  a  state  or  any  other  small  area,  careful,  mechanical  meas- 
urements will  give  a  better  result.  Suppose  the  map  to  be  that  of 
Pennsylvania.  Determine  the  size  of  the  map  and  draw  the  central 
meridian.  From  Table  II.  lay  off  the  points  where  the  40th,  41st, 
and  42d  parallels  cross  it.  With  a  radius  of  68.28  units  (Table  I.) 
draw  an  arc  for  the  40th  parallel,  and  from  the  same  centre  draw 
the  41st  and  4 2d  parallels  each  through  its  proper  point  on  the 
central  meridian.  On  this  parallel  of  400  lay  off  the  degrees  of 
longitude,  each  53.06  miles  in  length;  and  on  the  42d  parallel 
space  off  the  degrees  51.48  miles  each.  Draw  the  meridians  each 
through  its  proper  series  of  points. 

Bonnet  Projection.  —  The  parallels  are  drawn  from  the  same 
centre,  using  a  length  of  radius  according  to  Table  I.  The  merid- 
ian distances  may  be  laid  off  from  either  table  and  the  meridians 
drawn  with  a  flexible  rule,  or  they  may  be  drawn  by  means  of 
curves  made  for  the  purpose.  A  set  of  three  or  four  '  ship-curves  ' 
will  answer  all  practical  purposes. 

For  FlamsteedVs  modification,  make  the  parallels  equidistant 
straight  lines,  space  off  the  meridian  distances  according  to  Table 
I.,  and  through  each  set  of  points  draw  the  meridian  with  a  flexi- 
ble rule. 

From  the  foregoing  it  may  be  inferred  that  while  the  map  is 
theoretically  projected  on  a  tangent  cone,  the  meridians  are  spaced 
off  as  if  the  cone  were  spheroidal.  It  is  for  this  reason,  also,  that 
on  a  projection  for  a  large  area,  a  meridian,  instead  of  cutting  the 
parallels  at  right  angles,  may  cut  them  at  very  oblique  angles,  — 
acute  in  high,  and  obtuse  in  low  latitudes. 

The  Polyconic  Projection.  —  Determine  the  extent  and  scale 
of  the  map,  and  lay  off  the  central  meridian.  Along  the  central 
meridian  lay  off  divisions  through  which  the  parallels  are  to  be 
drawn,  five,  ten,  or  any  number  of  degrees  apart,  as  may  be  desired. 
The  parallels  may  then  be  laid  off  from  Table  I.  On  the  suppo- 
sition that  the  distance  between  meridians  at  the  equator  is  ten 


82  HINTS    TO    TEACHERS 

units  (each,  say,  \  of  an  inch,  or  any  value  the  draughtsman  adopts), 
the  radius  for  drawing  the  parallel  of  ten  degrees  is  324.9  units  in 
length;  for  the  parallel  of  twenty  degrees,  157.4  units,  etc. 

The  distance  between  adjacent  meridians  may  then  be  spaced 
off.  Referring  to  the  same  table,  the  distance  at  the  equator  is  10 
units ;  on  the  tenth  parallel,  9.84  units ;  on  the  twentieth  parallel, 
9.39  units,  etc.,  throughout  the  extent  of  the  map.  With  the 
flexible  rule,  draw  curved  lines  which  shall  pass,  each  through  a  set 
of  points  thus  established.  The  second  column  of  Table  I.  has 
been  constructed  on  the  hypothesis  of  a  spherical  earth.  A 
slightly  more  accurate  result  may  be  obtained  by  dividing  each 
member  of  the  second  column  of  Table  II.  by  69.172  ;  the  quo- 
tients will  be  ordinates  for  each  degree  of  a  geoid.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  this  table  is  used  in  spacing  off  the  meridian  distances  on  the 
maps  published  by  the  U.  S.  Coast  Survey.  It  is  practically  a 
table  of  cosines ;  and  the  radii  by  which  the  parallels  are  drawn 
from  a  table  of  natural  cotangents,  each  member  being  multiplied 
by  a  constant  factor  N.  In  Table  I.  this  factor  is  57.296.  It  is 
deduced  as  follows  :  If  the  cosine  of  an  arc  of  i°  of  a  great  circle 
of  a  sphere  is  1.000,  then  the  radius  of  that  sphere  is  57.296-f. 
The  formula  for  the  radius  of  the  developed  parallel  is,  therefore, 
R  =  N cot$. 


.1 

nL      J  MAP^DRAWING  AND  MAP-MAKING 


83 


T 

LBLE  I. 

—  For  1 

he  Construction  of  Polyconic  Projections. 

1  Dec. 

Radius 

Dec. 

Radius 

Dec. 

Radius 

Lat. 

I     OF 

for 

Lat. 

of 

for 

Lat. 

of 

FOR 

ILONG. 

Parallei  . 

Long. 

Parallel. 

Long. 

Parallel. 

0° 

1.000 

CO 

31° 

.857 

95.356 

62° 

.469 

30.465 

1° 

.999 

3282.473 

32° 

.848 

91.962 

63° 

.454 

27.945 

2° 

.999 

1640.736 

33° 

.838 

88.228 

64° 

.438 

26.717 

3° 

.998 

1093.268 

34° 

.829 

84.944 

65° 

.423 

26.717 

4° 

.997 

819.368 

35° 

.819 

81.827 

66° 

.407 

25.510 

5° 

.996 

654.894 

36°  ' 

.809 

78.861 

67° 

.391 

24.321 

6° 

.994 

545.133 

37° 

'.799 

76.034 

68° 

.374 

23.149 

7° 

.992 

466.637 

38° 

.788 

73.335 

69° 

.358 

21.194 

8° 

.990 

407.681 

39° 

.777 

70.254 

70° 

.342 

20.854 

9° 

.9S7 

361.751 

40° 

.766 

68  282 

71° 

.325 

19.729 

10° 

.984 

324.940 

41° 

.755 

65.911 

72° 

.309 

18.617 

11° 

.981 

294.761 

42° 

.743 

63.633 

73° 

.292 

17.517 

12° 

.978 

269.556 

43° 

.731 

61.442 

74° 

.275 

16.429 

13° 

.974 

248.175 

44° 

.719 

59.332 

75° 

.259 

15.352 

14° 

.970 

229.801 

45° 

.707 

57.296 

76° 

.242 

14.285 

15° 

.965 

213.831 

46° 

.694 

55.330 

77° 

.225 

13.228 

16° 

.961 

199.814 

47° 

.682 

53.429 

78° 

.208 

12.179 

17° 

.956 

187.406 

48° 

.669 

51.589 

79° 

.191 

11.137 

18° 

.951 

176.338 

49° 

.656 

49.806 

80° 

.174 

10.103 

19° 

.945 

166.399 

50° 

.643 

48.077 

81° 

.156 

9.075 

20° 

.939 

157.419 

51° 

.629 

46.397 

82° 

.139 

8.052 

21° 

.933 

149.261 

52° 

.615 

44.764 

83° 

.122 

7.035 

22° 

.927 

141.812 

53° 

.602 

43.175 

84° 

.104 

6.022 

23° 

.920 

134.980 

54° 

.588 

41.628 

85° 

.087 

5.013 

24° 

.913 

128.688 

55° 

.573 

40.119 

86° 

.070 

4.007 

25° 

.906 

122.871 

56° 

.559 

38.646 

87° 

.052 

3.001 

26° 

.899 

117.474 

57° 

.544 

37.208 

88° 

.035 

2.001 

27° 

.891 

112.449 

58° 

.529 

35.802 

89° 

.017 

1.000 

28° 

.883 

107.758 

59° 

.515 

34.427 

90° 

.000 

0.000 

29° 

.874 

103.364 

60° 

.500 

33.080 

30° 

.866 

99.239 

61° 

.485 

31.760 

84 


HINTS   TO    TEACHERS 


Table  II. —The  Lengths  of  One  Degree  of  Longitude  in  Different 

Latitudes. 


Lat. 

Stat.  Mi. 

Lat. 

Stat.  Mi. 

Lat. 

Stat.  Mi. 

Lat. 

Stat.  Mi. 

0° 

69.164 

23° 

63.695 

46° 

48.124 

69° 

24.860 

1° 

69.145 

24° 

63.216 

47° 

47.253 

70° 

23.725 

2° 

69.122 

25° 

62.718 

48° 

46.363 

71° 

22.584 

3° 

69.072 

26° 

62.202 

49° 

45.462 

72c 

21.437 

4° 

68.998 

27° 

61.666 

50° 

44.545 

73° 

20.284 

5° 

68.901 

28° 

61.113 

51° 

43.614 

74° 

19.124 

6° 

68.785 

29° 

60.537 

52° 

42.670 

75° 

17.957 

7° 

68.652 

30° 

59.947 

53° 

41.713 

76° 

16.784 

8° 

68.496 

31° 

59.333 

54° 

40.743 

77° 

15.608 

9° 

68.315 

32° 

58.711 

55° 

39.760 

78° 

14.427 

10° 

68.117 

33° 

58.065 

56° 

38.765 

79° 

13.240 

11° 

67.900 

34° 

57.397 

57° 

37.758 

80° 

12.049 

12° 

67.661 

35° 

56.714 

58° 

36.740 

81° 

10.854 

13° 

67.402 

36° 

56.018 

59° 

35.710 

82° 

9.656 

14° 

67.121 

37° 

55.308 

60° 

34.669 

83° 

8.456 

15° 

66.821 

38° 

54.570 

61° 

33.617 

84° 

7.253 

16° 

66.499 

39° 

53.819 

62° 

32.555 

85° 

6.048 

17° 

66.163 

40° 

53.053 

63° 

31.4S3 

86° 

4.840 

18° 

65.798 

41° 

52.269 

64° 

30.402 

87° 

3.631 

19° 

65.419 

42° 

51.476 

65° 

29.310 

88° 

2.421 

20° 

65.014 

43° 

50.660 

66° 

28.210 

89° 

1.211 

21° 

64.5S9 

44° 

49.830 

67° 

27.101 

90° 

0.000 

22° 

64.156 

45° 

48.982 

68° 

25.985 

Geography. 


Progressive  Outline  Maps. 

North  America;  South  America;  Europe;  Central  and  Western  Europe*; 
Asia;  Africa;  Australia;  United  States;  New  England;  Middle  Atlantic  States ; 
Southern  States,  Eastern  Division  ;  Southern  States,  Western  Division  ;  Central 
States,  Eastern  Division  ;  Central  States,  Western  Division  ;  Pacific  States  ;  the 
Great  Lakes  ;  New  York ;  Ohio ;  Washington  ;  Pennsylvania  ;  British  Isles  *  ; 
England*;  the  World  on  Mercator's  Projection*;  Greece*;  Italy*;  Pales- 
tine *  ;  and  Ancient  History  *(the  world  as  known  to  the  Ancients).  Printed  on 
substantial  drawing  paper,  adapted  to  lead-pencil  or  to  ink.  10  x  12  inches. 
U.  S.  and  Mercator's  Projection,  12  x  20  inches.  Price  by  mail  2  cents  each; 
#1.50  per  hundred.     Map  of  Ancient  History,  3  cents  each  ;  $2.50  per  hundred. 

An  edition  of  the  Maps,  at  same  price,  is  issued  in  black  ink,  on  heavy  white 
writing  paper,  about  three-fourths  the  size.  These  are  especially  adapted  for  use 
in  grades  using  the  Primary  Geography. 

When  ordered  by  mail  at  the  hundred  rate,  the  postage,  which  on 
full  hundreds  is  25  cents  for  the  small  maps  and  50  cents  for  the  large, 
must  be  paid  by  the  purchaser. 

*  These  maps  may  also  be  had  for  historical  work  with  outline  printed  in  black  ink. 

THESE  outlines  are  for  the  use  of  the  pupil,  and  are  based  on  the 
assumption  that  map-drawing  should  be  taught  as  a  means,  and 
not  as  an  end ;  that  its  purpose  is  to  assist  the  mind  in  acquiring 
and  fixing  geographical  facts,  and  that  to  memorize  the  construction 
lines  of  other  methods  and  the  hundreds  of  nameless  projections  and 
indentations  of  a  tortuous  coast-line  is  a  waste  of  iime  and  of  nervous 
energy  which  would  be  better  employed  in  studying  important  and  in- 
teresting particulars  concerning  the  physical  features,  climate,  pro- 
ducts, etc.,  of  the  interior. 

In  tracing  the  outline,  the  pupil  acquires  a  correct  knowledge  of  the 
form  of  the  country,  and,  as  each  day's  lesson  proceeds,  he  can  fill  in 
his  map  to  correspond  with  the  detailed  knowledge  gained. 

Among  the  advantages  of  the  Progressive  Outline  Maps,  we  may 
mention  the  following  :  — 

I .  Economy  of  time.  By  using  the  Progressive  Outline  Maps  all 
the  practical  benefits  of  map-drawing  are  secured.  By  tracing  the  dim 
outline,  and  then  developing  a  continent  along  such  special  lines  as 
the  teacher  may  direct,  every  important  feature  is  clearly  fixed  in  the 
mind  of  the  pupil,  in  as  little  time  as  is  ordinarily  consumed  in  mem- 
orizing the  construction  lines  and  diagrams  of  other  systems  ;  and  the 
still  longer  time  required  to  memorize  the  irregularities  of  a  contour 
can  be  devoted  to  the  study  of  the  more  important  topics. 

167 


i68 


GEOGRAPHY. 


2.  Accuracy.  They  keep  a  correct  form  of  the  country  under  con- 
sideration constantly  before  the  pupil. 

3.  General  usefulness,  (a)  These  maps  may  be  used  to  indicate, 
besides  the  usual  facts  of  indentations,  projections,  mountains,  rivers, 
countries,  states,  towns,  etc.,  the  location  of  areas  of  mineral  deposits, 
of  forest  growth,  of  prairies,  deserts,  plateaus,  of  the  various  kinds 
of  soil,  of  staple  productions,  of  dense  population,  of  manufacturing 
districts,  etc. 

(b)  For  developing  the  features  of  continents,  made  specially  prom- 
inent in  Physical  Geography,  these  maps  are  very  valuable. 

(c)  In  connection  with  the  study  of  Ancient  History,  these  maps 
may  be  used  to  represent  the  location  of  ancient  tribes  and  barbarous 
hordes  of  men,  the  provinces  of  ancient  empires,  the  distribution  of 
territory  after  conquests,  etc.,  etc. 

(d)  In  Modern  History,  the  Maps  of  North  America  and  the 
United  States  may  be  used  for  indicating  the  early  discoveries,  the 
settlements  and  the  general  development  of  the  continent,  the  colonies 
and  the  nation,  in  connection  with  the  text-book  study  of  these  fea- 
tures. 

No  time  can  be  spared  in  History  for  practice  in  map-drawing. 

(e)  For  rapid  and  thorough  tests  of  pupil's  knowledge  of  Political, 
Descriptive,  and  Physical  Geography,  and  of  many  facts  in  History, 
no  series  of  questions  and  answers  can  equal  in  three  hours  what  may 
be  ascertained,  practically,  of  their  knowledge  of  these  subjects  by 
the  Outlines  in  thirty  minutes.  Such  a  map  can  be  easily  and  rapidly 
inspected  by  the  examiner. 

4.  Economy  in  price.  These  maps  cost  the  pupil  two  cents  each. 
Several  times  that  amount  is  usually  expended  for  paper  required  for 
the  practice  in  producing  a  satisfactory  map  by  other  methods. 

For  opinions,  other  than  the  following,  from  teachers  and  school 
officers  who  have  used,  or  carefully  examined  the  maps,  see  special 
circular  which  is  sent  free  on  application. 


Albert  G.  Boyden,  Prin.  State 
Normal  School,  Bridge-water,  Mass.: 
They  are  admirable,  and  greatly  facilitate 
the  study  of  geography  and  history.  We 
use  them  with  much  satisfaction  for  his- 
tory as  well  as  geography. 


Geo.  H.  Martin,  Agent  Mass.  State 
Board  of  Education  :  Both  the  idea  and 
execution  commend  themselves  fully  to 
my  judgement  If  they  can  be  made  to 
displace  the  old  "systems"  of  map-draw- 
ing, they  wiU  be  a  boon. 


GEOGRAPHY.  169 


Progressive  Outline  Maps  of  the  World. 

No.  1.    World  Outline,  on  the  Plane  of  London.     \\\  X  t8  inches. 
No.  2.     World  Drainage  Outline,  on  the  Plane  of  the  North  Pole.     14J  X  18. 
No.  3.     Southern  Hemisphere,  Drainage  Outline,  on  the  Plane  of  the  South  Pole. 
*32  X  18.     Introduction  price,  3  cents  each.    #2.50  per  hundred. 

THIS  series  of  Progressive  Outline  Maps  of  the  World  is  based  on 
the  latest  and  best  means  of  presenting  by  maps  geographical  and 
historical  facts,  especially  those  of  world-wide  significance.  The  series 
has  been  proven,  by  actual  work  with  pupils  from  the  fifth  year  upward, 
to  be  unexcelled  for  the  ease,  accuracy,  and  truthfulness  with  which 
World  Relations,  both  in  Geography  and  History,  can  be  represented. 

Pupils  are  enabled  to  perceive  and  express  in  Geography,  (1)  the 
ideas  of  the  relations  of  relief,  drainage,  climate,  productions,  of  all 
the  continents,  (2)  the  distribution,  occupations,  settlements,  etc.,  of 
people,  O")  the  intercontinental  lines  of  travel,  (4)  the  extent  of  the 
interdependence  of  geographical  objects;  in  History,  (1)  the  territorial 
limits,  (2)  the  movements  of  nations  in  the  past  and  present,  in  war 
and  peace,  (3)  the  influence  of  physical  features  on  the  development  of 
a  people  or  nation. 

A  list  indicating  the  uses  of  the  series  in  the  teaching  of  the  World 
as  a  Whole,  or  Globe  Lessons,  is  given  in  a  special  circular  on  these 
maps. 

Historical  Outline  Map  of  England. 

For  the  Use  of  Students.     By  Thomas  C.  Roney,  Chicago.     19  x  24  inches. 
Retail  price,  5  cents  each.     Introduction  price,  #4.00  per  hundred. 

THIS  map  is  especially  valuable  for  showing  the  vital  relation  be- 
tween Geography  and  History,  and  for  illustrating  the  historic 
sequence  of  events.  The  skillful  teacher  will  make  it  serve  many 
other  subordinate  uses.  It  is  an  admirable  help  to  the  study  of 
English  Literature. 

The  outlines  of  the  counties  of  modern  England  and  Wales,  and  of 
the  earldoms  and  vassal  kingdoms  of  England  in  the  tenth  and 
eleventh  centuries  are  indicated,  and  suggestions  and  illustrations  as 
to  the  use  of  the  map  are  given  on  it. 


170 


GEOGRAPHY. 


Outline  Maps  of  the  United  States. 

Prepared  by  Edward  Channing  and  Albert  B.  Hart,  Assistant  Professors 
in  History  in  Harvard  College.  The  Large  Map  is  on  strong  white  paper,  in 
four  sections,  each  26x42  inches.  Price,  15  cents  per  section;  50  cents  com- 
plete. Mounted,  $3.00.  The  Small  Map  is  on  tough  white  paper,  in  blue 
ink,  and  1 1£  x  18  inches.     Price,  2  cents  each ;  #1.50  per  hundred. 

THE  sections  of  the  large  maps  are  divided  by  the  95th  meridian 
and  the  37th  parallel.  They  may  be  used  separately  or  pasted 
together.  The  location  of  the  principal  cities  is  indicated  by  dots  and 
there  is  no  lettering  on  the  map  except  the  numbering  of  the  parallels 
and  meridians.  These  maps  are  suitable  for  large  classes  or  for 
public  lectures  as  they  can  be  clearly  seen  for  a  distance  of  more  than 
forty  feet.  By  the  simple  use  of  shading  and  colors  they  may  be 
made  to  serve  in  place  of  elaborate  maps  of  various  kinds ;  physical, 
geological,  political,  etc.,  with  the  further  advantage  of  allowing 
teachers  to  exercise  their  individual  knowledge. 

The  small  map  has  a  broad  margin  on  the  right  hand  side  which 
furnishes  space  for  written  comments.  The  names  of  the  principal 
rivers  and  the  numbers  of  the  parallels  and  meridians  are  printed  on 
these  maps.  They  are  useful  to  the  teacher  or  lecturer,  where  a  map 
may  be  passed  from  hand  to  hand,  and  convenient  for  recording  geo- 
graphic facts  in  graphic  form,  and  for  copying  rare  or  expensive  maps. 
They  may  serve  well  for  a  great  variety  of  exercises  in  Political 
History,  Economics,  Meteorology,  Geology,  and  Physical  Geography. 

In  use  at  Harvard,  Johns  Hopkins,  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
etc.,  etc.  Special  circular,  more  fully  describing  the  method  of  using 
these  maps,  sent  free  on  application. 


The  Educational  Courant,  Louis- 
ville, Ky.:  Map  drawing  is  one  of  the 
best  methods  possible  in  teaching  geo- 
graphy, but  has  not  been  used  by  teachers 
generally  on  account  of  the  time  necessary 
to  teach  children  how  to  make  outlines. 
This  series  of  maps,  which  embraces  all 
that  any  class  will  need  to  use,  does  away 
with  that  stumbling  block.  If  you  see 
them  you  will  use  them. 

School  Education,  Minneapolis, 
Minn.:    Many  teachers  whose  time  is 


limited  are  deterred  from  map  sketching 
by  the  labor  of  drawing  details.  Here  we 
have  maps  faultlessly  proportioned  and 
ready  for  names.  The  advantage  of  such 
work  is  incalculable.  The  larger  sectional 
maps  of  the  United  States  are  also  in 
blank  ready  for  a  large  historical  wall  map 
which  will  grow  in  completeness  as  events 
are  unfolded  during  the  progress  of  the 
term's  work  in  history.  Each  student 
may  work  up  his  own  map,  or  one  may  be 
made  by  the  class  in  common. 


GEOGRAPHY. 


Historical  Outline  Map  of  Europe. 

Printed  on  bond  paper,  12x18  inches,  in  black  outline.     Price  by  mail,  3  cents 
each  ;  #2.25  per  hundred. 

THIS  map,  though  belonging  to  the  Progressive  Outline  Map  Se- 
ries, is  especially  intended  for  the  use  of  classes  in  History  or 
Science,  as  fully  described  under  the  Historical  Outline  Map  of  the 
United  States  (seepage  170). 

In  addition  to  the  outline  of  the  continent,  the  principal  mountain 
ranges  are  also  given. 


Topics  in  Geography. 


By  W.  F.  Nichols,   Principal  of  Hamilton  School,  Holyoke,  Mass.    Cloth. 
176  pages.     Retail  Price,  65  cents. 

THIS  book  contains  a  comprehensive  outline  of  all  geographical 
facts  usually  taught  in  our  best  primary  and  grammar  schools, 
together  with  many  excellent  suggestions  for  increasing  the  interest 
of  pupils  by  object  lessons  and  language  work  in  geography. 

In  preparing  the  Topics  the  author  has  aimed :  to  increase  the 
value  of  geographical  study,  to  shorten  the  time  usually  spent  on  the 
study,  to  give  a  brief  outline  for  the  scientific  study  of  any  continent 
as  based  upon  structure  or  slope,  to  deal  sparingly  or  not  at  all  with 
statistics,  but  rather  to  have  all  areas  taught  by  comparison,  to  make 
more  prominent  the  natural  curiosities  and  wonders,  and  to  combine 
language  and  geography.  It  is  a  practical  guide,  containing  much  in- 
formation concisely  stated.  A  list  of  books  for  reference,  including 
many  interesting  and  reliable  tales  of  travel  is  added. 


G.  R.  Showhan,  Co.  Supt.  Schools, 
Urbana,  III. :  I  believe  it  will  be  a  very 
useful  auxiliary  to  teachers  of  our  com- 
mon schools.  They  do  not  so  much  need 
to  be  told  what  to  teach  as  how  to  teach  ; 
as  how  to  select  from  the  great  mass  of 
geographical  facts  those  which  will  prove 
to  be  most  useful.  Your  little  work  will 
certainly  prove  to  be  a  valuable  guide. 

Isaac  H.  Stout,  lately  of  Dept.  of  In- 
struction, Geneva,  N.  Y. :  I  have  exam- 
ined it  carefully  and  am  much  pleased 
with  it,  believing  that  it  is  directly  in  the 


line  of  what  so  many  of  our  teachers  need 
for  their  work  in  the  school- room. 

E.  S.  Kirtland,  recently  Supt., 
Holyoke,  Mass. :  The  Topics  in  Geog- 
raphy were  made  in  and  for  our  schools, 
and  have  been  used  long  enough  to  prove 
their  value  ;  indeed,  I  regard  the  little  book 
as  the  most  useful  school-room  work  that 
has  ever  been  given  to  this  department. 

Miss  A.  G.  Baldwin,  Teacher  in 
Hampden  Nor.  and  Agri.  Inst.,  Va.  :  It 
seems  to  me  admirably  fitted  for  the  pur- 
pose for  which  it  was  intended- 


172  GEOGRAPHY, 


Lessons  in  the  New  Geography. 

By  Spencer  Trotter,  Professor  of  Biology  and  Geology  in  Swarthmore  Col' 
lege,  Pa.    Cloth.     192  pages.     Retail  price,  pi. 00. 

THE  New  Geography  is  new  in  the  sense  that  its  point  of  view  is 
essentially  human .  The  old  methods  of  geography  teaching  dealt 
almost  exclusively  in  the  hard  facts  and  dry  detail  of  surface  features, 
political  divisions,  —  an  endless,  meaningless  collection  of  names,  with 
Jittle  if  any  reference  to  the  true  value  of  geographical  conditions  as 
factors  in  the  development  of  man.  As  the  earth  is  the  theatre  of 
human  action,  the  true  study  of  geography  is  a  study  of  human  life 
under  the  varied  conditions  of  existence  imposed  by  the  different  regions 
of  the  earth.  It  is  thus  synonymous  with  History.  One  object  of  these 
"  Lessons"  is  to  bring  this  view  of  the  study  of  Geography, — with 
a  fresh  and  living  interest  to  the  mind  of  every  teacher  and  student. 

Not  the  least  important  feature  of  geographical  study,  as  of  all  study, 
is  the  extent  to  which  the  imagination  is  brought  into  play  in  forming 
ideas  of  things.  A  mental  picture  must  be  created  in  the  child's  brain  ; 
and  the  teacher  is  successful  in  so  far  as  he  or  she  is  able  to  form  this 
picture  in  his  or  her  own  mind,  and  vividly  reflect  it  to  the  pupil.  So 
with  a  book  :  its  words  and  sentences  must  convey  living  ideals.  To 
the  extent  that  it  does  this  will  it  be  interesting,  instructive,  and 
valuable  as  an  educational  factor. 

These  "  Lessons11  aim  to  fulfil  these  two  phases  of  the  study,  — the 
human  and  the  imaginative.  The  purpose  of  the  book  is  to  present 
an  outline  sketch,  suggestive  and  stimulating,  and  it  is  intended  as 
a  Reader  to  supplement  the  regular  work  of  the  teacher  and  the 
class. 

The  various  subjects  presented  in  the  chapters  and  lessons  are  not 
to  be  viewed  as  special  and  separate  treatises.  They  are  brought  for- 
ward simply  to  indicate  their  relationships  to  the  whole  subject.  This 
is  especially  true  of  the  lessons  dealing  with  the  elementary  questions 
of  climate  and  geology.  The  book  does  not  aim  to  train  the  student, 
but  to  stimulate  interest  in  the  wider  relations  of  Geography. 

From  our  special  circular  on  this  book  we  quote  the  following : 

in  an  excellent  manner.  It  is  interestingly 
written,  and  it  deals  with  matter  which 
ought  to  be  learned  by  all  pupils. 


K.  S.  Tarr,  Prof,  of  Geology \  Cornell 
Univ.y  Ithaca  N.Y.:  The  book  is  well 
conceived,  well  prepared,  and  published 


GEOGRAPHY. 


*73 


Manual  of  Geography, 


Modern  Facts  and  Ancient  Fancies  in  Geography.     A  book  for  teachers.     By 
Jacques  W.  Redway.    Cloth.     175  pages.    Retail  price,  65  cents. 

BEING  a  world-wide  traveller  and  professional  geographer,  as  well 
as  a  practical  teacher,  Mr.  Redway  is  excellently  fitted  to  make 
fresh  and  original  suggestions  on  the  study  of  this  subject.  His 
book  renders  the  latest  discoveries  in  Geography  available  for  the 
use  of  teachers.  Chapters  on  Out-of-door  Lessons,  Clay  and  Sand- 
modelling  and  Map-drawing  are  full  of  interesting  information  else- 
where unpublished. 

The  most  striking  part  of  the  work  is  devoted  to  the  discussion  of 
the  time-worn  traditions  that  still  cumber  many  even  of  the  most  re- 
cent text-books.  The  facts  given  concerning  volcanoes,  storms, 
deserts,  sea-depths,  ocean-currents,  glaciers,  etc.,  etc.,  have  never  be- 
fore found  their  way  into  modern  school-books,  and  will  be  a  surprise 
to  most  teachers.  It  is  full  of  useful  hints  to  teachers,  and  of  bright, 
interesting  information  for  the  general  reader. 


Alex.  E.  Frye,  Author  of  "  Frye's 
Geographies :  "  I  consider  it  a  very  valua 
ble  contribution  to  geographical  literature. 
It  should  be  in  the  hands  of  all  progress- 
ive teachers.  Its  Hints  to  Teachers  are 
invaluable ;  while  its  chapters  on  Modern 
Facts  and  Ancient  Fancies  will  be  a 
revelation  to  many. 

The  work  is  stimulating,  logical  and 
practical ;  and  reflects  much  credit  upon 
the  scholarly  attainments  of  its  author. 

J.  M.  Greenwood,  Supt.  of  Pub. 
Instruction ,  Kansas  City,  Mo.  :  One  of 
the  most  suggestive  hand-books  for 
teachers  I  have  ever  read.  I  will  recom- 
mend it  to  our  teachers. 

J.  P.  Welch,  recently  Inst,  in  State 
Normal  School,  West  Chester,  Pa. :  I 
read  it  with  much  pleasure  and  profit,  and 
was  not  surprised  at  its  excellence,  be- 
cause I  know  the  author  to  be  the  best  in- 
formed man,  on  that  subject,  that  I  ever 
knew, 


Miss  B.  M.  Reed,  Prin.  Springfield 
Training  School,  Mass.  :  I  think  it  will 
be  cordially  received  by  teachers.  It  is 
very  suggestive  and  covers  ground  that 
must  have  required  a  lifetime,  nearly,  to 
become  acquainted  with. 

Wisconsin  Journal  of  Educa- 
tion :  It  helps  where  help  is  most  needed, 
in  effecting  a  change  from  mechanical  to 
rational  teaching  of  geography.  It  is  not 
a  dull  manual  of  directions,  but  an  inter- 
esting and  suggestive  treatment  of  modern 
pedagogical  views  in  geography.  We 
venture  to  affirm  that  teachers  of  geog- 
raphy will  find  in  it  much  that  is  new  to 
them,  and  plans  of  work,  with  practical 
discussions  of  ways  and  means  for  realiz- 
ing them,  which  if  followed  will  make  ele- 
mentary geography  a  new  branch  to  them 
and  their  pupils.  The  book  is  thus  a  man- 
ual of  methods  and  matter,  the  sort  of  a 
book  which  a  good  geography  teacher 
will  want  always  at  hand  until  familiar 
with  every  paragraph  in  it. 


174 


GEOGRAPHY. 


The  Reproduction  of  Geographical  Forms. 

I.  Sand  and  Clay-Modelling  with  Reference  to  Geographical  Forms.  II.  Map- 
Drawing  and  Map  Projection.  By  JACQUES  W.  Redway,  author  of  "  A  Man- 
ual of  Geography."     Illustrated.     Paper,  84  pages.     Retail  price,  30  cents. 

THE  object  of  this  pamphlet  is  to  group  the  various  forms  and  outlines 
of  relief  into  types.  The  pupil  is  taught  to  classify  the  various 
types  of  relief  and  earth-sculpture,  and  to  reproduce  them  in  sand  or 
in  clay,  either  from  pictures  or  photographs,  or  from  a  study  of  the 
form  as  it  occurs  in  nature.  By  this  method  the  modelling  of  geo- 
graphical forms  becomes  a  science  instead  of  an  aimless  expenditure  of 
energy.  In  the  chapter  on  Map-projection  the  pupil  is  taught  not  only 
how  to  draw  a  map,  but  also  how  to  project  it  as  well.  A  number  of 
easy  projections,  requiring  no  more  elaborate  apparatus  than  a  pair 
of  dividers  and  a  straight-edge,  are  plotted  for  the  practical  use  of  the 
pupil.  The  very  important  question  of  how  to  read  and  interpret  a  map 
is  also  discussed. 


Schoolmaster,  London,  Eng.  : 
This  book  is  full  of  practical  suggestions. 
We  have  nowhere  seen  collected  so  many 
hints  as  to  the  best  methods  of  modelling 
in  sand  and  clay,  and  of  utilizing  out- 
door lessons  in  acquiring  the  essential 
facts  and  principles  of  geographical  study. 
We  commend  this  work  to  our  readers. 

Educational  Journal  of  Va.  : 
This  is  emphatically  a  working  book,  and 
we  have  seen  nothing  which  so  fully  ac- 
cords with  our  ideas  on  the  subjects 
treated. 


Wisconsin  Journal  of  Educa- 
tion :  The  single  chapter  on  out-of  door 
lessons  is  full  of  suggestions  which  would 
enable  any  intelligent  teacher  to  substi- 
tute something  better  for  the  text-book 
memorizing  now  so  common.  There  are 
few  teachers  who  would  not  learn  much 
from  this  little  manual. 

Iowa  Nor.  Monthly  ;  Teachers  in 
primary  as  well  as  in  grammar  grades  will 
find  this  little  book  very  helpful.  The 
cuts  are  such  as  will  enable  the  teacher  to 
fully  understand  the  work  in  hand. 


Intermediate  Outline  Map  /£  United  States. 

For  Historical  and  Geographical  Study.  Prepared  by  William  A.  Mowry, 
Editor  of  "  Education  "  and  *'  Common  School."  28  x  40  inches.  Price,  each 
30  cents ;  per  set  of  four,  #1.00. 

WITH  this  map  colored  pencils  should  be  used  to  fill  in  the  history 
as  it  occurred  and  as  fast  as  the  lessons  develop  the  facts.  For 
a  full  course  of  U.  S.  history  four  maps  should  be  used  :  (1)  Discoveries 
and  explorations  to  1763  ;  (2)  through  the  Revolution  to  1783  ;  (3)  de- 
velopment and  growth  to  1861 ;  (4)  the  War  of  Secession. 


GEOGRAPHY.  175 


The  Earth  in  Space ; 


Or,  a  Fortnight  in  Astronomical  Geography.  By  Edward  P.  Jackson,  In- 
structor in  Science  at  the  Boston  Latin  School.  Illustrated.  Cloth.  So  pages. 
Retail  price,  40  cents.    Special  price  for  class  use. 

TO  many  persons  otherwise  well  informed,  this  subject  is  an  ever- 
perplexing  mystery.  Familiar  with  the  topography,  geology* 
and  political  history  of  the  world  they  inhabit,  they  know  little  of  it 
as  a  unit,  in  its  relation  to  other  worlds.  This  book  presents,  in  a 
few  simple  lessons,  the  main  features  of  this  important  branch  of 
Geography.     It  is  adapted  to  grammar  and  intermediate  schools. 

The  following  is  the  Table  of  Contents :  How  we  know  that  the 
earth  is  spherical ;  How  we  know  that  the  earth  is  flattened  at  the 
poles;  Latitude  and  Longitude ;  Zones;  Dimensions  and  Distances: 
How  we  know  these ;  Gradual  changes  in  light  and  heat  during  the 
day  and  the  year ;  How  we  know  that  the  earth  rotates  ;  Apparent 
daily  motion  of  the  heavens ;  How  we  know  that  the  earth  revolves  : 
The  inclination  of  the  axis  ;  The  sun's  declinations ;  The  change  of 
seasons  ;  The  variation  in  the  length  of  day  and  night ;  Appendix. 

Boston  School  Board,  June  11, 

I89 :  Ordered,  that  Jackson's  Manual  of 

Astronomical  Geography  be   authorized 


C.  F.  King,  Master  of  Dearborn 
School,  Boston  :  I  consider  it  a  most  valu- 
able treatise  on  the  subject.  I  have  been 
looking  for  years  for  such  a  book. 

J.  M.  Sawin,  Master  of  Grammar 
School,  Providence  :  Delighted  with  it. 
I  have  never  read  anything  on  the  subject 
so  short,  simple,  and  interesting. 


for  use  as  supplementary  reading  for  the 
Grammar  Schools,  one  set  of  sixty  copies 
to  be  supplied  to  each  of  the  Schools. 

The  Epoch :  There  is  about  as  much 
solid  meat  packed  into  this  little  volume 
as  could  be  put  into  such  small  space. 


Outline  Maps  to  accompany  Sheldon  s  Amer- 
ican History.  Printed  in  black  outline  on  bond  paper.  Price,  2  cents  each; 
$1.50  per  hundred. 

THESE  six  outline  maps  include  the  following:  The  World  on 
Mercator's  projection,  North  America,  the  United  States  west  to 
Santa  Fe,  west  to  the  Mississippi,  west  from  the  Mississippi,  and  the 
Southern  and  Middle  States  for  use  in  studying  the  Civil  War. 

This  series  of  maps  is  of  great  service  when  used  in  connection  with 
any  text-book  on  American  History. 


176 


GEOGRAPHY. 


Picturesque  Geography. 


A  set  of  12  pictures,  printed  in  oil  colors,  size,  15  x  20  inches.  Price,  per  Set,  in 
Sheets,  with  24  pages  of  letterpress  description,  #3.00.  Mounted  on  Boards,  per 
Set,  #5.00. 

INTENDED  primarily  to  picture  to  the  beginner  the  natural  divi- 
sions of  land  and  water,  which  are  usually  named  in  abstract  defini- 
tions, and  at  the  same  time  to  meet  the  modern  demand  for  artistic  and 
instructive   pictures   for  decoration  of  school  walls. 

These  pictures  are  produced  in  the  finest  style  of  chromo-litho 
graphy.  They  consist  of  twelve  beautiful  landscapes  from  Nature, 
selected  for  their  prominent  geographical  features. 


The  series  consists  of : 


1.   River  and  Valley. 

7- 

2.  Roads  and  Railways. 

8. 

3.  Hills,    Plain     and    Con- 

9- 

fluence  of  Rivers. 

10. 

4.  Mountain-Pass  and  Torrent. 

11. 

5.  Glacier. 

12. 

6.  Lake. 

Cliffs  and  Cape. 

Strait. 

Islands. 

Isthmus,  Peninsula,  and  Haven. 

Coral  Islands  and  Reef. 

Volcano  and  Gulf. 


W.  T.  Harris,  U.  S.  ComW  of  Ed- 
ucation, Washington,  D.  C. :  It  gives  me 
great  pleasure  to  commend  the  new  Pictur- 
esque Geography.  It  is  calculated  to  be 
of  real  service  in  teaching  the  child  the 
concrete  meaning  of  technical  terms  used 
in  Geography. 

Olive  Adele  Evers,  Prin.  of 
Teachers'  Training  Class,  Minneapolis, 
Minn. :  I  am  delighted  with  the  pictures, 
and  can  make  good  use  of  them. 

Journal  of  Education,  Boston  : 
By  far  the  finest  presentation  of  natu- 
ral formations  and  scenic  characteris- 
tics of  the  various  countries  that  has  yet 
appeared. 

National  Schoolmaster,  London : 
The  artistic  beauty  of  these  pictures  ex- 
ceeds anything  we  have  previously  seen 
for  school  use. 


Mrs.  Louisa  Parsons  Hopkins, 
late  Supervisor,  Boston,  Mass.:  I  think 
it  altogether  the  best  set  of  illustrative 
plates  of  the  kind  I  could  find,  and  have 
urged  very  strongly  that  a  set  should  be 
furnished  to  every  Primary  School.  I 
hope  the  time  will  come  when  sufficient 
progress  in  method  will  be  reached  to  in- 
sure the  introduction  of  the  series  of  Pic- 
turesque Geography  as  a  part  of  the  fur- 
nishing of  every  first  class  in  the  Primarv 
Schools. 

Educational  Times,  London : 
They  will  supply  the  mind  with  images 
more  definite  and  lasting  than  those 
gained  from  books  alone. 

Tablet,  London:  The  subjects  chosen, 
as  well  as  the  artistic  excellence  in  execu- 
tion, are  well  calculated  to  fix  Geography 
on  the  mind. 


READING. 


Badlands  Suggestive  Lessons  in  Language  and  Reading.   A  manual  for  prt- 

mary  teachers.     Plain  and  practical;    being  a  transcript  of  work  actually  done  in  the 
school-room.    $1.50. 

Badlam's  Stepping-Stones  to  Reading.—  A  Primer.   Supplements  the  a83-page 

book  above.     Boards.     30  cts. 

Badlam's  First  Reader.  New  and  valuable  word-building  exercises,  designed  to  follow 
the  above.    Boards.    35  cts. 

Bass's  Nature  Stories  for  Young  Readers:  Plant  Life,  intended  to  supple- 
ment the  first  and  second  reading-books.     Boards.     30  cts. 

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animals  and  their  habits.     To  follow  second  reader.     Boards.     40  cts. 
Firth'S  Stories  Of   Old  Greece.       Contains  17  Greek  myths  adapted  for  reading  in 
intermediate  grades.     Illustrated.     Boards.    35  cts. 

Fuller's  Illustrated  Primer.  Presents  the  word-method  in  a  very  attractive  form  to 
the  youngest  readers.     Boards.    30  cts. 

Hall's  HOW  tO  Teach  Reading.  Treats  the  important  question:  what  children  should 
and  should  not  read.     Paper.     25  cts. 

Miller's  My  Saturday  Bird  Class.  Designed  for  use  as  a  supplementary  reader  in 
lower  grades  or  as  a  text-book  of  elementary  ornithology.     Boards.    30  cts. 

Norton's  Heart  Of  Oak  BOOkS.  This  series  is  of  material  from  the  standard  imagin- 
ative literature  of  the  English  language.  It  draws  freely  upon  the  treasury  of  favorite 
stories,  poems,  and  songs  with  wnich  every  child  should  become  familiar,  and  which 
have  done  most  to  stimulate  the  fancy  and  direct  the  sentiment  of  the  best  men  and 
women  of  the  English-speaking  race.  Book  I,  100  pages,  25  cts. ;  Book  II,  142  pages, 
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Penniman'S  School  Poetry  BOOk.  Gives  73  of  the  best  short  poems  in  the  English 
language.     Boards.    35  cts. 

Smith's  Reading  and  Speaking.  Familiar  Talks  to  those  who  would  speak  well  in 
public    80  cts. 

Spear's  Leaves  and  Flowers.  Designed  for  supplementary  reading  in  lower  grades 
or  as  a  text-book  of  elementary  botany.     Boards.    30  cts. 

Ventura's  MantegaZZa'S  Testa.  A  book  to  help  boys  toward  a  complete  self-develop- 
ment.    $1.00. 

Wright's  Nature  Reader,  NO.  I.  Describes  crabs,  wasps,  spiders,  bees,  and  some 
univalve  mollusks.     Boards.    30  cts. 

Wright's  Nature  Reader,  NO.  II.  Describes  ants,  flies,  earth-worms,  beetles,  bar- 
nacles and  star-fish.     Boards.     40  cts. 

Wright's  Nature  Reader,  NO.  III.  Has  lessons  in  plant-life,  grasshoppers,  butter 
flies,  and  birds.     Boards.    60  cts. 

Wright's  Nature  Reader,  NO.  IV.  Has  lessons  in  geology,  astronomy,  world-life, 
etc.    Boards.    70  cts. 

For  advanced  supplementary  reading  see  our  list  0/ books  in  English  Literature. 


D.    C.    HEATH    &    CO.,    PUBLISHERS, 

BOSTON         NEW  YORK,       CHICAGO. 


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Hyde's  Practical  English  Grammar.  For  advanced  classes  in  grammar  schools  and 
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Hyde's  Derivation  of  Words.    15  cts. 

Penniman's  Common  Words  Difficult  to  Spell.     Graded  lists  of  common  words 

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Penniman's  Prose  Dictation  Exercises.     Short  extracts  from  the  best  authors. 

boards.     30  cts. 

Spalding's  Problem  of  Elementary  Composition.    Suggestions  for  its  solution. 

Cloth.    45  cts. 

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of  teaching  English  grammar  and  compositon  in  the  secondary  schools.     25  cts. 
Woodward's   Study  Of  English.      From  primary  school  to  college.     25  cts. 
Genung'S   Study  Of  Rhetoric.      Shows  the  most  practical  discipline.     25  cts. 
See  also  our  list  of  books  for  the  study  of  English  'Literature* 


D.    C.    HEATH    &    CO.,    PUBLISHERS, 

BOSTON.        NEW  YORK.        CHICAGO. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

BERKELEY 

Return  to  desk  from  which  borrowed. 

This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 

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HE           „D 

JAN  5    1962 

LD  21-95m-ll,'50  (2877s 

16)476 

YB  44290 


M522503 


